Jump to content

Sun Yat-sen

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Je-hsin)

Father of the Nation
Sun Yat-sen
孫中山
Sun in the 1910s
Provisional President of the Republic of China
In office
1 January 1912 – 10 March 1912
Vice PresidentLi Yuanhong
Preceded byOffice established
Succeeded byYuan Shikai
Premier of the Kuomintang
In office
10 October 1919 – 12 March 1925
Preceded byOffice established
Succeeded byZhang Renjie (as Chairman)
Personal details
Born
Sun Te-ming (孫德明)

(1866-11-12)12 November 1866
Cuiheng, Guangdong, Qing China
Died12 March 1925(1925-03-12) (aged 58)
Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Beijing, Republic of China
Resting placeSun Yat-sen Mausoleum
Political partyKuomintang
Other political
affiliations
Spouses
(m. 1885; div. 1915)
(m. 1905; a. 1906)
(m. 1915)
Children4, including Sun Fo
Parents
EducationHong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese (MD)
OccupationPolitician, writer, physician
Signature (Chinese)孫文, Sun's signature in Chinese, from a piece of calligraphy in the National Palace Museum
Signature
Military service
Branch/serviceRepublic of China Army
Years of service1917–1925
RankGrand marshal
Battles/wars
Common name in English (Sun Yat-sen)
Traditional Chinese孫逸仙
Simplified Chinese孙逸仙
Hanyu PinyinSūn Yìxiān
JyutpingSyun1 Jat6-sin1
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinSūn Yìxiān
Bopomofoㄙㄨㄣ ㄧˋ ㄒㄧㄢ
Wade–GilesSun1 Yi4-hsien1
Tongyong PinyinSun Yì-sian
IPA[swə́n î.ɕjɛ́n]
Yue: Cantonese
Yale RomanizationSyūn Yaht-sīn
JyutpingSyun1 Jat6-sin1
Hong Kong RomanisationSuen Yat-sin
IPA[syn˥ jɐt̚˨ sin˥]
Southern Min
Hokkien POJSun E̍k-sian
Common name in Chinese
Traditional Chinese孫中山
Simplified Chinese孙中山
Hanyu PinyinSūn Zhōngshān
JyutpingSyun1 Zung1-saan1
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinSūn Zhōngshān
Bopomofoㄙㄨㄣ ㄓㄨㄥ ㄕㄢ
Wade–GilesSun1 Chung1-shan1
Tongyong PinyinSun Jhong-shan
IPA[swə́n ʈʂʊ́ŋ.ʂán]
Yue: Cantonese
Yale RomanizationSyūn Jūng sāan
JyutpingSyun1 Zung1-saan1
IPA[syn˥ tsʊŋ˥ san˥]
Southern Min
Hokkien POJSun Tiong-san
Courtesy name
Traditional Chinese孫載之
Simplified Chinese孙载之
Hanyu PinyinSūn Zàizhī
JyutpingSyun1 Zoi3-zi1
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinSūn Zàizhī
Bopomofoㄙㄨㄣ ㄗㄞˋ ㄓ
Wade–GilesSun1 Tsai4-chih1
Tongyong PinyinSun Zài-jhih
IPA[swə́n tsâɪ.ʈʂɻ̩́]
Yue: Cantonese
Yale RomanizationSyūn Joi-jī
JyutpingSyun1 Zoi3-zi1
IPA[syn˥ tsɔj˧ tsi˥]

Sun Yat-sen (/ˈsʊnˈjɑːtˈsɛn/;[1] traditional Chinese: 孫逸仙; simplified Chinese: 孙逸仙; pinyin: Sūn Yìxiān; 12 November 1866 – 12 March 1925)[2][3][4][a] was a Chinese revolutionary, statesman, and political philosopher who served as the provisional first president of the Republic of China and the first leader of the Kuomintang (KMT). Uniquely among 20th-century Chinese leaders, Sun is revered by both the Republic of China on Taiwan (where he is officially the "Father of the Nation") and by the People's Republic of China (where he is officially the "Forerunner of the Revolution") for his instrumental role in the 1911 Revolution that successfully overthrew the Qing dynasty.[5]

Educated overseas, Sun is considered one of the most important leaders of modern China, but his political life featured constant struggles and frequent periods of exile. After the success of the 1911 Revolution, Sun quickly resigned as president of the nascent Republic of China, relinquishing the position to the general Yuan Shikai and ultimately going into exile in Japan. He later returned to found a revolutionary government in Southern China to challenge the warlords who controlled much of the country following Yuan's death. In 1923, Sun invited representatives of the Communist International to Guangzhou to reorganize the KMT, resulting in the brittle First United Front with the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). He did not live to see his party unify the country under his successor, Chiang Kai-shek, in the Northern Expedition. Now residing in Beijing, Sun died of gallbladder cancer in 1925.

A vital component of Sun's legacy is his political philosophy, known as the Three Principles of the People: the peoples' independence from foreign domination, their rights, and their livelihood.[6][7][8] He also composed the lyrics to the National Anthem of the Republic of China.

Names

[edit]
Silver coin: 1 yuan – Sun Yat Sen, 1927

Sun's genealogical name was Sun Deming (Syūn Dāk-mìhng; 孫德明).[3][9] As a child, his pet name [zh] was Tai Tseung (Dai-jeuhng; 帝象).[3] In school, the teacher gave him the name Sun Wen (Cantonese: Syūn Màhn; 孫文), which was used by Sun for most of his life. Sun's courtesy name was Zaizhi (Jai-jī; 載之), and his baptized name was Rixin (Yaht-sān; 日新).[10] While at school in British Hong Kong, he got the art name Yat-sen (Chinese: 逸仙; pinyin: Yìxiān).[11] Sun Zhongshan (孫中山; Cantonese: syūn jūng sāan, romanized Chung Shan), the most popular of his Chinese names in China, is derived from his Japanese name Kikori Nakayama (中山樵 Nakayama Kikori), the pseudonym given to him by Tōten Miyazaki when he was in hiding in Japan.[3] His birthplace city was renamed Zhongshan in his honour probably shortly after his death in 1925 and uses that name. Zhongshan is one of the few cities named after people in China and has remained as the official name of the city during Communist rule.

Early years

[edit]

Birthplace and early life

[edit]

Sun Te-ming was born on 12 November 1866 to Sun Dacheng and Madame Yang.[4] His birthplace was the village of Cuiheng, Xiangshan County (now Zhongshan City), Canton Province (now Guangdong).[4] He is of Hakka[12][13] descent. His father owned very little land and worked as a tailor in Macau and as a journeyman and a porter.[14] After finishing primary education and meeting childhood friend Lu Haodong,[3] he moved to Honolulu in the Kingdom of Hawaii, where he lived a comfortable life of modest wealth supported by his elder brother Sun Mei.[15][16][17][18]

Education

[edit]
Sun Yat-sen with his family in 1901
Sun Yat-sen (back row, fourth from right) and his family

During his stay in Honolulu, Sun began his education at the age of 10,[3] attending secondary school in Hawaii.[19] In 1878, after receiving a few years of local schooling, a 13-year-old Sun went to live with his elder brother Sun Mei,[3] who would later make major contributions to overthrowing the Qing dynasty, and who financed Sun's attendance of the ʻIolani School.[15][16][17][18] There, he studied English, British history, mathematics, science, and Christianity.[3] Sun was initially unable to speak English, but quickly acquired it, received a prize for academic achievement from King Kalākaua, and graduated in 1882.[20] He then attended Oahu College (now known as Punahou School) for one semester.[3][21] By 1883, Sun's interest in Christianity had become deeply worrisome for his brother—who, seeing his conversion as inevitable, sent Sun back to China.[3]

Upon returning to China, a 17-year-old Sun met with his childhood friend Lu Haodong at the Beiji Temple (北極殿) in Cuiheng,[3] where villagers engaged in traditional folk healing and worshipped an effigy of the Beiji (literally 'North Pole') emperor-god. Feeling contemptuous of these practices,[3] Sun and Lu incurred the wrath of their fellow villagers by breaking the wooden idol; as a result, Sun's parents felt compelled to dispatch him to Hong Kong.[3][22] In November 1883, Sun began attending the Diocesan Home and Orphanage on Eastern Street (now the Diocesan Boys' School),[23][24] and from 15 April 1884 he attended The Government Central School on Gough Street (now Queen's College), until graduating in 1886.[25][26]

In 1886, Sun studied medicine at the Guangzhou Boji Hospital under the Christian missionary John Glasgow Kerr.[3] According to his book "Kidnapped in London", in 1887 Sun heard of the opening of the Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese (the forerunner of the University of Hong Kong).[27] He immediately sought to attend, and went on to obtain a license to practice medicine from the institution in 1892;[3][11] out of a class of twelve students, Sun was one of two who graduated.[28][29][30]

Religious views and Christian baptism

[edit]

In the early 1880s, Sun Mei had sent his brother to ʻIolani School, which was under the supervision of the Church of Hawaii and directed by an Anglican prelate, Alfred Willis, with the language of instruction being English. At the school, the young Sun first came in contact with Christianity.

Sun was later baptized in Hong Kong (on 4 May 1884) by Rev. Charles Robert Hager[31][32][33] an American missionary of the Congregational Church of the United States (American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions) to his brother's disdain. The minister would also develop a friendship with Sun.[34][35] Sun attended To Tsai Church (道濟會堂), founded by the London Missionary Society in 1888,[36] while he studied medicine in Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese. Sun pictured a revolution as similar to the salvation mission of the Christian church. His conversion to Christianity was related to his revolutionary ideals and push for advancement.[35]

Becoming a revolutionary

[edit]

Four Bandits

[edit]
Sun (second from left) and his friends the Four Bandits: Yeung Hok-ling (left), Chan Siu-bak (middle), Yau Lit (right), and Guan Jingliang (關景良, standing) at the Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese, circa 1888

During the Qing-dynasty rebellion around 1888, Sun was in Hong Kong with a group of revolutionary thinkers, nicknamed the Four Bandits, at the Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese.[37]

From Furen Literary Society to Revive China Society

[edit]

In 1891, Sun met revolutionary friends in Hong Kong including Yeung Ku-wan who was the leader and founder of the Furen Literary Society.[38] The group was spreading the idea of overthrowing the Qing. In 1894, Sun wrote an 8,000-character petition to Qing Viceroy Li Hongzhang presenting his ideas for modernizing China.[39][40][41] He traveled to Tianjin to personally present the petition to Li but was not granted an audience.[42] After that experience, Sun turned irrevocably toward revolution. He left China for Hawaii and founded the Revive China Society, which was committed to revolutionizing China's prosperity. It was the first Chinese nationalist revolutionary society.[43] Members were drawn mainly from Chinese expatriates, especially from the lower social classes. The same month in 1894, the Furen Literary Society was merged with the Hong Kong chapter of the Revive China Society.[38] Thereafter, Sun became the secretary of the newly merged Revive China Society, which Yeung Ku-wan headed as president.[44] They disguised their activities in Hong Kong under the running of a business under the name "Kuen Hang Club"[45]: 90  (乾亨行).

Heaven and Earth Society and overseas travels to seek financial support

[edit]

A "Heaven and Earth Society" sect known as Tiandihui had been around for a long time.[46] The group has also been referred to as the "three cooperating organizations", as well as the triads.[46] Sun mainly used the group to leverage his overseas travels to gain further financial and resource support for his revolution.[46]

First Sino-Japanese War

[edit]

In 1895, China suffered a serious defeat during the First Sino-Japanese War. There were two types of responses. One group of intellectuals contended that the Manchu Qing government could restore its legitimacy by successfully modernizing.[47] Stressing that overthrowing the Manchu would result in chaos and would lead to China being carved up by imperialists, intellectuals like Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao supported responding with initiatives like the Hundred Days' Reform.[47] In another faction, Sun Yat-sen and others like Zou Rong wanted a revolution to replace the dynastic system with a modern nation-state in the form of a republic.[47] The Hundred Days' reform turned out to be a failure by 1898.[48]

First uprising and exile

[edit]

First Guangzhou Uprising

[edit]
Plaque in London marking the site of a house at 4 Warwick Court, WC1, in which Sun Yat-sen lived in exile
Letter from Sun Yat-sen to James Cantlie announcing to him that he has assumed the Presidency of the Provisional Republican Government of China, dated 21 January 1912

In the second year of the establishment of the Revive China Society, on 26 October 1895, the group planned and launched the First Guangzhou uprising against the Qing in Guangzhou.[40] Yeung Ku-wan directed the uprising starting from Hong Kong.[44] However, plans were leaked out, and more than 70 members, including Lu Haodong, were captured by the Qing government. The uprising was a failure. Sun received financial support mostly from his brother, who sold most of his 12,000 acres of ranch and cattle in Hawaii.[15] Additionally, members of his family and relatives of Sun would take refuge at the home of his brother Sun Mei at Kamaole in Kula, Maui.[15][16][17][18][49]

Exile in Japan

[edit]

While in exile in London in 1896, Sun raised money for his revolutionary party and to support uprisings in China. While the events leading up to it are unclear, Sun Yat-sen was detained at the Chinese Legation in London, where the Chinese secret service planned to smuggle him back to China to execute him for his revolutionary actions.[50] He was released after 12 days by the efforts of James Cantlie, The Globe, The Times, and the Foreign Office, which left Sun a hero in the United Kingdom.[note 1] James Cantlie, Sun's former teacher at the Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese, maintained a lifelong friendship with Sun and later wrote an early biography of him[52] Sun wrote a book in 1897 about his detention, "Kidnapped in London."[27]

Sun traveled by way of Canada to Japan to begin his exile there. He arrived in Yokohama on 16 August 1897 and met with the Japanese politician Tōten Miyazaki. Most Japanese who actively worked with Sun were motivated by a pan-Asian opposition to Western imperialism.[53] In Japan, Sun also met and befriended Mariano Ponce, a diplomat of the First Philippine Republic.[54]

During the Philippine Revolution and the Philippine–American War, Sun helped Ponce procure weapons that had been salvaged from the Imperial Japanese Army and ship the weapons to the Philippines. By helping the Philippine Republic, Sun hoped that the Filipinos would win their independence so that he could use its islands as a staging point of another revolution. However, as the war ended in July 1902, the United States emerged victorious from a bitter three-year war against the Republic. Therefore, the Filipino dream of independence vanished with Sun's hopes of allying with the Philippines in his revolution in China.[55]

From failed uprisings to revolution

[edit]

Huizhou Uprising

[edit]

On 22 October 1900, Sun ordered the launch of the Huizhou Uprising to attack Huizhou and provincial authorities in Guangdong.[56] That came five years after the failed Guangzhou Uprising. This time, Sun appealed to the triads for help.[57] The uprising was another failure. Miyazaki, who participated in the revolt with Sun, wrote an account of the revolutionary effort under the title "33-Year Dream" (三十三年之夢) in 1902.[58][59][60]

Getting support from Siamese Chinese

[edit]

In 1903, Sun made a secret trip to Bangkok in which he sought funds for his cause in Southeast Asia. His loyal followers published newspapers, providing invaluable support to the dissemination of his revolutionary principles and ideals among Siamese Chinese in Siam. In Bangkok, Sun visited Yaowarat Road, in the city's Chinatown. On that street, Sun gave a speech claiming that Overseas Chinese were "the Mother of the Revolution." He also met the local Chinese merchant Seow Houtseng,[61] who sent financial support to him.

Sun's speech on Yaowarat Road was commemorated by the street later being named "Sun Yat Sen Street" or "Soi Sun Yat Sen" (Thai: ซอยซุนยัตเซ็น) in his honour.[62]

Getting support from American Chinese

[edit]

According to Lee Yun-ping, chairman of the Chinese historical society, Sun needed a certificate to enter the United States since the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 would have otherwise blocked him.[63]

In March 1904, while residing in Kula, Maui, Sun Yat-sen obtained a Certificate of Hawaiian Birth, issued by the Territory of Hawaii, stating that "he was born in the Hawaiian Islands on the 24th day of November, A.D. 1870."[64][65] He renounced it after it served its purpose to circumvent the Chinese Exclusion Act.[65] Official files of the United States show that Sun had United States nationality, moved to China with his family at age 4, and returned to Hawaii 10 years later.[66]

On 6 April 1904, on his first attempt to enter the United States, Sun Yat-sen landed in San Francisco. He was detained and faced with possible deportation.[63] Sun, represented by the law firm of Ralston & Siddons, based in Washington DC, filed an appeal with the Commissioner-General of Immigration on 26 April 1904. On 28 April 1904, the acting secretary of the Department of Commerce and Labor in a four-page decision contained in the case file, set aside the order of deportation and ordered the Commissioner of Immigration in San Francisco to "permit the said Sun Yat-sen to land." Sun was then freed to embark on his fundraising tour in the United States.[63]

Unifying forces of Tongmenghui in Tokyo

[edit]
A letter with Sun's seal commencing the Tongmenghui in Hong Kong

In 1904, Sun Yat-sen came about with the goal "to expel the Tatar barbarians (specifically, the Manchu), to revive Zhonghua, to establish a Republic, and to distribute land equally among the people" (驅除韃虜, 恢復中華, 創立民國, 平均地權).[67] One of Sun's major legacies was the creation of his political philosophy of the Three Principles of the People. These Principles included the principle of nationalism (minzu, 民族), of democracy (minquan, 民權), and of welfare (minsheng, 民生).[67]

On 20 August 1905, Sun joined forces with revolutionary Chinese students studying in Tokyo to form the unified group Tongmenghui (United League), which sponsored uprisings in China.[67][68] By 1906 the number of Tongmenghui members reached 963.[67]

Getting support from Malayan Chinese

[edit]
Interior of the Wan Qing Yuan featuring Sun's items and photos
The Sun Yat-sen Museum in George Town, Penang, Malaysia, where he planned the Xinhai Revolution.[69]

Sun's notability and popularity extended beyond the Greater China region, particularly to Nanyang (Southeast Asia), where a large concentration of overseas Chinese resided in Malaya (Malaysia and Singapore). In Singapore, he met the local Chinese merchants Teo Eng Hock (張永福), Tan Chor Nam (陳楚楠) and Lim Nee Soon (林義順), which mark the commencement of direct support from the Nanyang Chinese. The Singapore chapter of the Tongmenghui was established on 6 April 1906,[70] but some records claim the founding date to be end of 1905.[70] The villa used by Sun was known as Wan Qing Yuan.[70][71] Singapore then was the headquarters of the Tongmenghui.[70]

After founding the Tongmenghui, Sun advocated the establishment of the Chong Shing Yit Pao as the alliance's mouthpiece to promote revolutionary ideas. Later, he initiated the establishment of reading clubs across Singapore and Malaysia to disseminate revolutionary ideas by the lower class through public readings of newspaper stories. The United Chinese Library, founded on 8 August 1910, was one such reading club, first set up at leased property on the second floor of the Wan He Salt Traders in North Boat Quay.[72]

The first actual United Chinese Library building was built between 1908 and 1911 below Fort Canning, on 51 Armenian Street, commenced operations in 1912. The library was set up as a part of the 50 reading rooms by the Chinese republicans to serve as an information station and liaison point for the revolutionaries. In 1987, the library was moved to its present site at Cantonment Road.

Uprisings

[edit]

On 1 December 1907, Sun led the Zhennanguan Uprising against the Qing at Friendship Pass, which is the border between Guangxi and Vietnam.[73] The uprising failed after seven days of fighting.[73][74] In 1907, there were a total of four failed uprisings, including Huanggang uprising, Huizhou seven women lake uprising and Qinzhou uprising.[70] In 1908, two more uprisings failed: the Qin-lian Uprising and Hekou Uprising.[70]

Anti-Sun factionalism

[edit]

Because of the failures, Sun's leadership was challenged by elements from within the Tongmenghui who wished to remove him as leader. In Tokyo, members from the recently merged Restoration society raised doubts about Sun's credentials.[70] Tao Chengzhang and Zhang Binglin publicly denounced Sun in an open leaflet, "A declaration of Sun Yat-sen's Criminal Acts by the Revolutionaries in Southeast Asia",[70] which was printed and distributed in reformist newspapers like Nanyang Zonghui Bao.[70][75] The goal was to target Sun as a leader leading a revolt only for profiteering.[70]

The revolutionaries were polarized and split between pro-Sun and anti-Sun camps.[70] Sun publicly fought off comments about how he had something to gain financially from the revolution.[70] However, by 19 July 1910, the Tongmenghui headquarters had to relocate from Singapore to Penang to reduce the anti-Sun activities.[70] It was also in Penang that Sun and his supporters would launch the first Chinese "daily" newspaper, the Kwong Wah Yit Poh, in December 1910.[73]

1911 revolution

[edit]
The Revolutionary Army of the Wuchang Uprising fighting in the Battle of Yangxia

To sponsor more uprisings, Sun made a personal plea for financial aid at the Penang conference, held on 13 November 1910 in Malaya.[76] The high-powered preparatory meeting of Sun's supporters was subsequently held in Ipoh, Singapore, at the villa of Teh Lay Seng, the chairman of the Tungmenghui, to raise funds for the Huanghuagang Uprising, also known as the Yellow Flower Mound Uprising.[77] The Ipoh leaders were Teh Lay Seng, Wong I Ek, Lee Guan Swee, and Lee Hau Cheong.[78] The leaders launched a major drive for donations across the Malay Peninsula[76] and raised HK$187,000.[76]

On 27 April 1911, the revolutionary Huang Xing led the Yellow Flower Mound Uprising against the Qing. The revolt failed and ended in disaster. The bodies of only 72 revolutionaries were identified of the 86 that were found.[79] The revolutionaries are remembered as martyrs.[79] Despite the failure of this uprising, which was due to a leak, it was successful in triggering off the trend of nation-wide revolts.[80]

On 10 October 1911, the military Wuchang Uprising took place and was led again by Huang Xing. The uprising expanded to the Xinhai Revolution, also known as the "Chinese Revolution", to overthrow the last emperor, Puyi.[81] Sun had no direct involvement in it, as he was in Denver, Colorado, and had spent much of the year in the United States in search of support from Chinese Americans. That made Huang be in charge of the revolution that ended over 2000 years of imperial rule in China. On 12 October, when Sun learned of the successful rebellion against the Qing emperor from press reports, he returned to China from the United States and was accompanied by his closest foreign advisor, the American "General" Homer Lea, an adventurer whom Sun had met in London when they attempted to arrange British financing for the future Chinese republic. Both sailed for China, arriving there on 21 December 1911.[82]

Republic of China with multiple governments

[edit]

Provisional government

[edit]
Portrait of Sun Yat-sen (1921) by Li Tiefu

On 29 December 1911, a meeting of representatives from provinces in Nanjing elected Sun as the provisional president.[83] 1 January 1912 was set as the epoch of the new republican calendar.[84] Li Yuanhong was made provisional vice-president, and Huang Xing became the minister of the army. A new provisional government for the Republic of China was created, along with a provisional constitution. Sun is credited for funding the revolutions and for keeping revolutionary spirit alive, even after a series of false starts. His successful merger of smaller revolutionary groups into a single coherent party provided a better base for those who shared revolutionary ideals. Under Sun's provisional government, several innovations were introduced, such as the aforementioned calendar system, and fashionable Zhongshan suits.

Beiyang government

[edit]

Yuan Shikai, who was in control of the Beiyang Army, had been promised the position of president of the Republic of China if he could get the Qing court to abdicate.[85] On 12 February 1912, the Emperor did abdicate the throne.[84] Sun stepped down as president, and Yuan became the new provisional president in Beijing on 10 March 1912.[85] The provisional government did not have any military forces of its own. Its control over elements of the new army that had mutinied was limited, and significant forces still had not declared against the Qing.

Sun Yat-sen sent telegrams to the leaders of all provinces to request them to elect and to establish the National Assembly of the Republic of China in 1912.[86] In May 1912, the legislative assembly moved from Nanjing to Beijing, with its 120 members divided between members of the Tongmenghui and a republican party that supported Yuan Shikai.[87] Many revolutionary members were already alarmed by Yuan's ambitions and the northern-based Beiyang government.

New Nationalist party in 1912, failed Second Revolution and new exile

[edit]

The Tongmenghui member Song Jiaoren quickly tried to control the assembly. He mobilized the old Tongmenghui at the core with the mergers of a number of new small parties to form a new political party, the Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalist Party, commonly abbreviated as "KMT") on 25 August 1912 at Huguang Guild Hall, Beijing.[87] The 1912–1913 National assembly election was considered a huge success for the KMT, which won 269 of the 596 seats in the lower house and 123 of the 274 seats in the upper house.[85][87] In retaliation, the KMT leader Song Jiaoren was assassinated, almost certainly by a secret order of Yuan, on 20 March 1913.[85] The Second Revolution took place by Sun and KMT military forces trying to overthrow Yuan's forces of about 80,000 men in an armed conflict in July 1913.[88] The revolt against Yuan was unsuccessful. In August 1913, Sun fled to Japan, where he later enlisted financial aid by the politician and industrialist Fusanosuke Kuhara.[89]

Warlords chaos

[edit]

In 1915, Yuan proclaimed the Empire of China with himself as Emperor of China. Sun took part in the National Protection War of the Constitutional Protection Movement and also supported bandit leaders like Bai Lang during the Bai Lang Rebellion, which marked the beginning of the Warlord Era. In 1915, Sun wrote to the Second International, a socialist-based organization in Paris, and asked it to send a team of specialists to help China set up the world's first socialist republic.[90] The same year, Sun received the Indian communist M.N. Roy as a guest.[91] There were then many theories and proposals of what China could be. In the political mess, both Sun Yat-sen and Xu Shichang were announced as president of the Republic of China.[92]

Alliance with Communist Party and Northern Expedition

[edit]

Guangzhou militarist government

[edit]
(L-R): Liao Zhongkai, Chiang Kai-shek, Sun Yat-sen and Soong Ching-ling at the founding of the Whampoa Military Academy in 1924

China had become divided among regional military leaders. Sun saw the danger and returned to China in 1916 to advocate Chinese reunification. In 1921, he started a self-proclaimed military government in Guangzhou and was elected Grand Marshal.[93] Between 1912 and 1927, three governments were set up in South China: the Provisional government in Nanjing (1912), the Military government in Guangzhou (1921–1925), and the National government in Guangzhou and later Wuhan (1925–1927).[94] The governments in the south were established to rival the Beiyang government in the north.[93] Yuan Shikai had banned the KMT. The short-lived Chinese Revolutionary Party was a temporary replacement for the KMT. On 10 October 1919, Sun resurrected the KMT with the new name Chung-kuo Kuomintang, or "Nationalist Party of China."[87]

First United Front

[edit]
Sun Yat-sen (seated) and Chiang Kai-shek

Sun was now convinced that the only hope for a unified China lay in a military conquest from his base in the south, followed by a period of political tutelage [zh], which would culminate in the transition to democracy. To hasten the conquest of China, he began a policy of active co-operation with the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Sun and the Soviet Union's Adolph Joffe signed the Sun-Joffe Manifesto in January 1923.[5] Sun received help from the Comintern for his acceptance of communist members into his KMT. Sun received assistance from Soviet advisor Mikhail Borodin, whom Sun described as his "Lafayette".[95]: 54  The Russian revolutionary and socialist leader Vladimir Lenin praised Sun and his KMT for its ideology, principles, attempts at social reformation, and fight against foreign imperialism.[96][97][98] Sun also returned the praise by calling Lenin a "great man" and indicated that he wished to follow the same path as Lenin.[99] In 1923, after having been in contact with Lenin and other Moscow communists, Sun sent representatives to study the Red Army, and in turn, the Soviets sent representatives to help reorganize the KMT at Sun's request.[100]

With the Soviets' help, Sun was able to develop the military power needed for the Northern Expedition against the military at the north. He established the Whampoa Military Academy near Guangzhou with Chiang Kai-shek as the commandant of the National Revolutionary Army (NRA).[101] Other Whampoa leaders include Wang Jingwei and Hu Hanmin as political instructors. This full collaboration was called the First United Front.

Financial concerns

[edit]

In 1924 Sun appointed his brother-in-law T. V. Soong to set up the first Chinese central bank, the Canton Central Bank.[102] To establish national capitalism and a banking system was a major objective for the KMT.[103] However, Sun met opposition by the Canton Merchant Volunteers Corps Uprising against him.

Final years

[edit]

Final speeches

[edit]
Sun (seated, right) and his wife Soong Ching-ling (seated next to him) in Kobe, Japan in 1924

In February 1923, Sun made a presentation to the Students' Union in Hong Kong University and declared that the corruption of China and the peace, order, and good government of Hong Kong had turned him into a revolutionary.[104][105] The same year, he delivered a speech in which he proclaimed his Three Principles of the People as the foundation of the country and the Five-Yuan Constitution as the guideline for the political system and bureaucracy. Part of the speech was made into the National Anthem of the Republic of China.

On 10 November 1924, Sun traveled north to Tianjin and delivered a speech to suggest a gathering for a "national conference" for the Chinese people. He called for the end of warlord rules and the abolition of all unequal treaties with the Western powers.[106] Two days later, he traveled to Beijing to discuss the future of the country despite his deteriorating health and the ongoing civil war of the warlords. Among the people whom he met was the Muslim warlord General Ma Fuxiang, who informed Sun that he would welcome Sun's leadership.[107] On 28 November 1924 Sun traveled to Japan and gave a speech on Pan-Asianism at Kobe, Japan.[108]

Illness and death

[edit]

For many years, it was popularly believed that Sun died of liver cancer. On 26 January 1925, Sun underwent an exploratory laparotomy at Peking Union Medical College Hospital (PUMCH) to investigate a long-term illness. It was performed by the head of the Department of Surgery, Adrian S. Taylor, who stated that the procedure "revealed extensive involvement of the liver by carcinoma" and that Sun had only about ten days to live. Sun was hospitalized, and his condition was treated with radium.[109] Sun survived the initial ten-day period, and on 18 February, against the advice of doctors, he was transferred to the KMT headquarters and treated with traditional Chinese medicine. That was also unsuccessful, and he died on 12 March, at the age of 58.[110] Contemporary reports in The New York Times,[110] Time,[111] and the Chinese newspaper Qun Qiang Bao all reported the cause of death as liver cancer, based on Taylor's observation.[112] He also left a short political will (總理遺囑), penned by Wang Jingwei, which had a widespread influence in the subsequent development of the Republic of China and Taiwan.[113]

Sun Yat-sen on death bed. Picture at The Museum of Dr. Sun Yat-sen in Cuiheng

His body then was preserved in mineral oil[114] and taken to the Temple of Azure Clouds, a Buddhist shrine in the Western Hills a few miles outside Beijing.[115] A glass-covered steel coffin was sent by the Soviet Union to the Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall at Temple of Azure Clouds as a permanent repository for the body but was ultimately declined by the family as unsuitable.[116] The body was embalmed for preservation by Peking Union Medical College who reportedly guaranteed its preservation for 150 years.[116]

In 1926, construction began on a majestic mausoleum at the foot of Purple Mountain in Nanjing, which was completed in the spring of 1929. On 1 June 1929, Sun's remains were moved from Beijing and interred in the Sun Yat-sen Mausoleum.

By pure chance, in May 2016, an American pathologist, Rolf F. Barth, was visiting the Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall in Guangzhou when he noticed a faded copy of the original autopsy report on display. The autopsy was performed immediately after Sun's death by James Cash, a pathologist at PUMCH. Based on a tissue sample, Cash concluded that the cause of death was an adenocarcinoma in the gallbladder that had metastasized to the liver. In modern China, liver cancer is far more common than gallbladder cancer. Although the incidence rates for either one in 1925 are not known, if one assumes that they were similar at the time, the original diagnosis by Taylor was a reasonable conclusion. From the time of Sun's death to the appearance of Barth's report[109] in the Chinese Journal of Cancer in September 2016, Sun's true cause of death was not reported in any English-language publication. Even in Chinese-language sources, it appeared in only one non-medical online report in 2013.[109][117]

Legacy

[edit]

Power struggle

[edit]
Chinese generals at the Sun Yat-sen Mausoleum in 1928 after the Northern Expedition. From right: Cheng Jin (何成浚), Zhang Zuobao (張作寶), Chen Diaoyuan (陳調元), Chiang Kai-shek, Woo Tsin-hang, Yan Xishan, Ma Fuxiang, Ma Sida (馬四達), and Bai Chongxi.

After Sun's death, a power struggle between his young protégé Chiang Kai-shek and his old revolutionary comrade Wang Jingwei split the KMT. At stake in the struggle was the right to lay claim to Sun's ambiguous legacy. In 1927, Chiang married Soong Mei-ling, a sister of Sun's widow Soong Ching-ling, and he could now claim to be a brother-in-law of Sun. When the Communists and the Kuomintang split in 1927, which marked the start of the Chinese Civil War, each group claimed to be his true heirs, and the conflict that continued until World War II. Sun's widow, Soong Ching-ling, sided with the Communists during the Chinese Civil War and was critical of Chiang's regime since the Shanghai massacre in 1927. She served from 1949 to 1981 as vice-president (or vice-chairwoman) of the People's Republic of China and as honorary president shortly before her death in 1981.[118]

Personality cult

[edit]

A personality cult in the Republic of China was centered on Sun and his successor, Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek. The cult was created after Sun Yat-sen died. Chinese Muslim generals and imams participated in the personality cult and the one-party state, with Muslim General Ma Bufang making people bow to Sun's portrait and listen to the national anthem during a Tibetan and Mongol religious ceremony for the Qinghai Lake god.[119] Quotes from the Qur'an and the Hadith were used by Hui Muslims to justify Chiang's rule over China.[120]

The Kuomintang's constitution designated Sun as the party president. After his death, the Kuomintang opted to keep that language in its constitution to honor his memory forever. The party has since been headed by a director-general (1927–1975) and a chairman (since 1975), who discharge the functions of the president.[citation needed]

Though took a stance against idolatry in life, Sun sometimes became worshiped as a god among people. For example, a KMT committee member Hsieh Kun-hong controversially referred to Sun as having "become immortal" after death under the posthumous name of "Great Merciful True Monarch" (Chinese: 偉慈真君) in 2021. Sun is already worshipped in the syncretic Vietnamese religion of Caodaism.[121]

Father of the Nation

[edit]
Statue of Sun's Mausoleum in Nanjing, with a Kuomintang flag on the ceiling

Sun Yat-sen remains unique among 20th-century Chinese leaders for having a high reputation in both Mainland China and Taiwan. In Taiwan, he is seen as the Father of the Republic of China and is known by the posthumous name Father of the Nation, Mr. Sun Zhongshan (Chinese: 國父 孫中山先生, and the one-character space is a traditional homage symbol).[9]

Forerunner of revolution

[edit]
Sun Yat-sen tribute in Tiananmen Square in front of the Monument to the People's Heroes, 2021

In Mainland China, Sun is seen as a Chinese nationalist, a proto-socialist, and the first president of a Republican China and is highly regarded as the Forerunner of the Revolution (革命先行者).[5] He is even mentioned by name in the preamble to the Constitution of the People's Republic of China. In recent years, the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party has increasingly invoked Sun, partly as a way of bolstering Chinese nationalism in light of the Chinese economic reform and partly to increase connections with supporters of the Kuomintang on Taiwan, which the People's Republic of China sees as allies against Taiwan independence. Sun's tomb was one of the first stops made by the leaders of both the Kuomintang and the People First Party on their pan-blue visit to mainland China in 2005.[122] A massive portrait of Sun continues to appear in Tiananmen Square for May Day and National Day.

In 1956, Mao Zedong said, "Let us pay tribute to our great revolutionary forerunner, Dr. Sun Yat-sen!... he bequeathed to us much that is useful in the sphere of political thought."[123][124]

Xi Jinping incorporates Sun's legacy into his discourse on national rejuvenation.[125] Xi describes Sun as the first person to propose a method for Chinese revival, including adopting the first blueprint for China's modernization.[125]

New Three Principles of the People

[edit]

Sun's Three Principles of the People has been reinterpreted by the Chinese Communist Party to argue that communism is a necessary conclusion of them and thus provide legitimacy for the government. This reinterpretation of the Three Principles of the People is commonly referred to as the New Three Principles of the People (Chinese: 新三民主義, also translated as "neo-tridemism"), a word coined by Mao's 1940 essay On New Democracy in which he argued that the Communist Party is a better enforcer of the Three Principles of the People compared to the bourgeois Kuomintang and that the new three principles are about allying with the communists and the Russians (Soviets) and supporting the peasants and the workers.[126] Proponents of the New Three Principles of the People claim that Sun's book Three Principles of the People acknowledges that the principles of welfare is inherently socialistic and communistic.[127]

During the 90th anniversary of the Xinhai Revolution in 2001, former CCP General Secretary Jiang Zemin claimed that Sun supposedly advocated for the "New Three Principles of the People."[128][129] In 2001, Sun's granddaughter Lily Sun said that the Chinese Communists were distorting Sun's legacy. She again voiced her displeasure in 2002 in a private letter to Jiang about the distortion of history.[128] In 2008 Jiang Zemin was willing to offer US$10 million to sponsor a Xinhai Revolution anniversary celebration event. According to Ming Pao, she did not take the money because then she would not "have the freedom to properly communicate the Revolution."[128]

KMT emblem removal case

[edit]

In 1981, Lily Sun took a trip to Sun Yat-sen Mausoleum in Nanjing. The emblem of the KMT had been removed from the top of his sacrificial hall at the time of her visit but was later restored. On another visit in May 2011, she was surprised to find the four-character "General Rules of Meetings" (會議通則), a document that Sun wrote in reference to Robert's Rules of Order had been removed from a stone carving.[128]

Founding father of the nation debate

[edit]

In 1940, the Republic of China (ROC) government had bestowed the title of "father of the nation" on Sun. However, after 1949, as a result of the Chiang regime's arrival in Taiwan, his "father of the nation" designation continued only in Taiwan.[130]

Sun visited Taiwan briefly on only three occasions (in 1900, 1913, and 1918) or four by counting 1924, when his boat had stopped in Keelung Harbor, but he did not disembark.[130]

In November 2004, the Taiwanese Ministry of Education proposed that Sun was not the father of Taiwan. Instead, Sun was a foreigner from mainland China.[131] Taiwanese Education Minister Tu Cheng-sheng and the Examination Yuan member Lin Yu-ti [zh], both of whom supported the proposal, had their portraits pelted with eggs in protest.[132] At a Sun Yat-sen statue in Kaohsiung, a 70-year-old retired soldier of the Republic of China committed suicide on Sun's birthday, 12 November, to protest the ministry's proposal.[131][132]

Views

[edit]

Western culture

[edit]

As a lifelong Christian who never left Christianity, Sun Yat-sen was a loyal follower of Western modernity and Christianity[133] and saw it as the best way to develop the Chinese nation. He went on foreign trips to gather support and resources of Western and Christian nations.[134] He was highly critical of anything from ancient Chinese which didn't confirm to Western standards and idols, this led him and his group to break idols and denounce Chinese medicine amongst other things.[135][136]

Economic development

[edit]

Sun Yat-sen spent years in Hawaii as a student in the late 1870s and early 1880s and was highly impressed with the economic development that he saw there. He used the Kingdom of Hawaii as a model to develop his vision of a technologically modern, politically independent, actively anti-imperialist China.[137] Sun, an important pioneer of international development, proposed in the 1920s international institutions of the sort that appeared after World War II. He focused on China, with its vast potential and weak base of mostly local entrepreneurs.[138]

His key proposal was socialism. He proposed:

The State will take over all the large enterprises; we shall encourage and protect enterprises which may reasonably be entrusted to the people; the nation will possess equality with other nations; every Chinese will be equal to every other Chinese both politically and in his opportunities of economic advancement.[139]

He also proposed, "If we use existing foreign capital to build up a future communist society in China, half the work will bring double the results."[140][141][142] He also said, "It is my idea to make capitalism create socialism in China."[143][144]

Sun promoted the ideas of the economist Henry George and was influenced by Georgist ideas on land ownership and a land value tax.[145][146]

Culture

[edit]

Sun supported natalism and had eugenic ideals.[147]: 41  He favored premarital health examinations, sterilization of those perceived as unfit, and other programs for socially engineering China's population.[147]: 41–42  In Sun's view, China had only endured Western invasions and colonial rule because of its large population.[147]: 41  Those views led him to oppose the use of birth control.[147]: 41 

Pan-Asianism

[edit]

Sun was a proponent of Pan-Asianism. He said that Asia was the "cradle of the world's oldest civilisation" and that "even the ancient civilisations of the West, of Greece and Rome, had their origins on Asiatic soil." He thought that it was only in recent times that Asians "gradually degenerated and become weak."[148] For Sun, "Pan-Asianism is based on the principle of the Rule of Right, and justifies the avenging of wrongs done to others." He advocated overthrowing the Western "Rule of Might" and "seeking a civilisation of peace and equality and the emancipation of all races."[149]

Family

[edit]
Lu Muzhen, Sun's first wife
Kaoru Otsuki, Sun's Japanese teenage wife
Fumiko, daughter of Sun and Kaoru

Sun Yat-sen was born to Sun Dacheng (孫達成) and his wife, Lady Yang (楊氏) on 12 November 1866.[150] At the time, his father was 53, and his mother was 38 years old. He had an older brother, Sun Dezhang (孫德彰), and an older sister, Sun Jinxing (孫金星), who died at the early age of 4. Another older brother, Sun Deyou (孫德祐), died at the age of 6. He also had an older sister, Sun Miaoqian (孫妙茜), and a younger sister, Sun Qiuqi (孫秋綺).[29]

At age 20, Sun had an arranged marriage with the fellow villager Lu Muzhen. She bore a son, Sun Fo, and two daughters, Sun Jinyuan (孫金媛) and Sun Jinwan (孫金婉).[29] Sun Fo was the grandfather of Leland Sun, who spent 37 years working in Hollywood as an actor and stuntman.[151] Sun Yat-sen was also the godfather of Paul Myron Anthony Linebarger, an American author and poet who wrote under the name Cordwainer Smith.

Sun's first concubine, the Hong Kong-born Chen Cuifen, lived in Taiping, Perak (now in Malaysia) for 17 years. The couple adopted a local girl as their daughter. Cuifen subsequently relocated to China, where she died.[152]

During Sun's exile in Japan, he had relationships with two Japanese women: the 15-year-old Haru Asada, whom he took as a concubine up to her death in 1902, and another 15-year-old schoolgirl, Kaoru Otsuki, whom Sun married in 1905 and abandoned the next year while she was pregnant.[153] Otsuki later had their daughter, Fumiko, adopted by the Miyagawa family in Yokohama, who did not discover her parentage until 1951,[153] 26 years after Sun's death.

On 25 October 1915 in Japan, Sun married Soong Ching-ling, one of the Soong sisters.[29][154] Soong Ching-ling's father was the American-educated Methodist minister Charles Soong, who made a fortune in banking and in printing of Bibles. Although Charles had been a personal friend of Sun, he was enraged by Sun announcing his intention to marry Ching-ling because while Sun was a Christian, he kept two wives: Lu Muzhen and Kaoru Otsuki. Soong viewed Sun's actions as running directly against their shared religion.

Soong Ching-Ling's sister, Soong Mei-ling, later married Chiang Kai-shek.

Cultural references

[edit]

Memorials and structures in Asia

[edit]
Aerial perspective of Sun Yat Sen Nanyang Memorial Hall, in central Singapore, taken in 2016

In most major Chinese cities, one of the main streets is Zhongshan Lu (中山路) to celebrate Sun's memory. There are also numerous parks, schools, and geographical features named after him. Xiangshan, Sun's hometown in Guangdong, was renamed Zhongshan in his honor, and there is a hall dedicated to his memory at the Temple of Azure Clouds in Beijing. There are also a series of Sun Yat-sen stamps.

Other references to Sun include the Sun Yat-sen University in Guangzhou and National Sun Yat-sen University in Kaohsiung. Other structures include Sun Yat-sen Mausoleum, Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall subway station, Sun Yat-sen house in Nanjing, Dr Sun Yat-sen Museum in Hong Kong, Chung-Shan Building, Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall in Guangzhou, Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall in Taipei and Sun Yat Sen Nanyang Memorial Hall in Singapore. Zhongshan Memorial Middle School has also been a name used by many schools. Zhongshan Park is also a common name used for a number of places named after him. The first highway in Taiwan is called the Sun Yat-sen expressway. Two ships are also named after him; the Chinese gunboat Chung Shan and the Chinese cruiser Yat Sen. The old Chinatown in Calcutta (now known as Kolkata), India, has the prominent Sun Yat-sen Street.

In Russia, a village in Mikhaylovsky District of Primorsky Krai was named Sunyatsenskoe in honor of him. There are streets named after him in Astrakhan, Ufa and Aldan. There was a street that was named after Sun in the Russian city of Omsk until 2005, when it was renamed in honor of the recipient of the title Hero of Soviet Union Mikhail Ivanovich Leonov.[155][156][157][158]

In George Town, Penang, Malaysia, the Penang Philomatic Union had its premises at 120 Armenian Street in 1910, while Sun spent more than four months in Penang and convened the historic "Penang Conference" to launch the fundraising campaign for the Huanghuagang Uprising and founded the Kwong Wah Yit Poh. The house, which has been preserved as the Sun Yat-sen Museum (formerly called the Sun Yat Sen Penang Base), was visited by President-designate Hu Jintao in 2002. The Penang Philomatic Union subsequently moved to a bungalow at 65 Macalister Road, which has been preserved as the Sun Yat-sen Memorial Centre Penang.

As a dedication, the 1966 Chinese Cultural Renaissance was launched on Sun's birthday on 12 November.[159]

The Nanyang Wan Qing Yuan in Singapore have since been preserved and renamed as the Sun Yat Sen Nanyang Memorial Hall.[71] A Sun Yat-sen heritage trail was also launched on 20 November 2010 in Penang.[160]

Sun's Hawaiian birth certificate, which claimed that he was not born in China but in the United States, was on public display at the American Institute in Taiwan on US Independence Day on 4 July 2011.[161]

A street in Medan, Indonesia, is named "Jalan Sun Yat-Sen" in honor of him.[162]

A street named "Tôn Dật Tiên" (the Sino-Vietnamese name for Sun Yat-Sen) is located in Phú Mỹ Hưng Urban Area, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam.

The "Trail of Dr. Sun Yat Sen and His Comrades in Ipoh"[163] was established in 2019, based on the book "Road to Revolution: Dr. Sun Yat Sen and His Comrades in Ipoh."[164]

[edit]

Memorials and structures outside Asia

[edit]
Sun Yat-Sen monument in Chinatown area of Los Angeles, California
Sun Yat-Sen sculpture by Joe Rosenthal at Riverdale Park in Toronto, Ontario

St. John's University, in New York City, has a facility built in 1973, the Sun Yat-Sen Memorial Hall, which built to resemble a traditional Chinese building in honor of Sun.[165] Dr. Sun Yat-Sen Classical Chinese Garden, located in Vancouver, is the largest classical Chinese gardens outside Asia. The Dr. Sun Yat-sen Memorial Park is in Chinatown, Honolulu.[166] On the island of Maui, the little Sun Yat-sen Park at Kamaole is near where his older brother had a ranch on the slopes of Haleakala in the Kula region.[16][17][18][49]

In Los Angeles, there is a seated statue of him in Central Plaza.[167] In Sacramento, California, there is a bronze statue of Sun in front of the Chinese Benevolent Association of Sacramento. Another statue of Sun, by Joe Rosenthal, can be found at Riverdale Park in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, and there is another statue in Toronto's downtown Chinatown. There is also the Moscow Sun Yat-sen University. In Chinatown, San Francisco is a 12-foot statue of Sun on Saint Mary's Square.[168]

In late 2011, the Chinese Youth Society of Melbourne, in celebration of the 100th anniversary of the founding of the Republic of China, unveiled in a lion dance blessing ceremony a memorial statue of Sun outside the Chinese Museum in the city's Chinatown on the spot that its traditional Chinese New Year lion dance always ends.[169]

Sun Yat-Sen plaza in the Chinese Quarter of Montreal, Quebec, Canada

In 1993, Lily Sun, one of Sun Yat-sen's granddaughters, donated books, photographs, artwork and other memorabilia to the Kapiʻolani Community College library as part of the Sun Yat-sen Asian Collection.[170] During October and November every year the entire collection is shown.[170] In 1997, the Dr Sun Yat-sen Hawaii Foundation was formed online as a virtual library.[170] In 2006, the NASA Mars Exploration Rover Spirit called one of the hills that was explored "Zhongshan."[171]

In 2019, a statue of Dr. Sun Yat-sen by Lu Chun-Hsiung and Michael Kang was permanently installed in the northern plaza of Manhattan's Columbus Park.[172][173]

[edit]

Opera

[edit]

Dr. Sun Yat-sen[174] (中山逸仙; ZhōngShān yì xiān) is a 2011 Chinese-language western-style opera in three acts by the New York-based American composer Huang Ruo, who was born in China and is a graduate of Oberlin College's Conservatory as well as the Juilliard School. The libretto was written by Candace Mui-ngam Chong, a recent collaborator with playwright David Henry Hwang.[175] It was performed in Hong Kong in October 2011 and was given its North America premiere on 26 July 2014 at the Santa Fe Opera.

Television series and films

[edit]

Sun Yat-sen's life is portrayed in various films, mainly The Soong Sisters and Road to Dawn. A fictionalized assassination attempt on his life was featured in Bodyguards and Assassins. He is also portrayed during his struggle to overthrow the Qing dynasty in Once Upon a Time in China II. The television series Towards the Republic features Ma Shaohua as Sun. In 1911, a film commemoration of the 100th anniversary of the Chinese Revolution, Winston Chao played Sun.[176] In Space: Above and Beyond, one of the starships of the China Navy is named the Sun Yat-sen.[177]

Performances

[edit]

In 2010, the theatrical play Yellow Flower on Slopes (斜路黃花) was created and performed.[178]

In 2011, the Mandopop group Zhongsan Road 100 (中山路100號) was known for singing the song "Our Father of the Nation" (我們國父).[179]

Works

[edit]
  • Kidnapped in London (1897)
  • The Outline of National Reconstruction/Chien Kuo Ta Kang (1918)
  • The Fundamentals of National Reconstruction/Jianguo fanglue (1924)
  • The Principle of Nationalism (1953)

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ Usually known as Sun Zhongshan (traditional Chinese: 孫中山; simplified Chinese: 孙中山) in Chinese; also known by several other names.
  1. ^ Contrary to a popular legend, Sun entered the Legation voluntarily although he was prevented from leaving. The Legation planned to execute him and to return his body to Beijing for ritual beheading. Cantlie, his former teacher, was refused a writ of habeas corpus because of the Legation's diplomatic immunity, but he began a campaign through The Times. Through diplomatic channels, the British Foreign Office persuaded the Legation to release Sun.[51]

References

[edit]
  1. ^
    • "Sun Yat-sen". Collins English Dictionary. 2020.
    • "Sun Yat-sen". Dictionary.com. 2023.
  2. ^ Steinberg, Jessica (10 February 2021). "China's century-old support for Zionism surfaces in letter". The Times of Israel. Retrieved 11 August 2022.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Singtao daily. Saturday edition. 23 October 2010. 特別策劃 section A18. Sun Yat-sen Xinhai revolution 100th anniversary edition 民國之父.
  4. ^ a b c "Chronology of Dr. Sun Yat-sen". Taipei: [[Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall (Taipei)|]]. Archived from the original on 16 April 2014. Retrieved 12 March 2014.
  5. ^ a b c Tung, William L. (1968). The political institutions of modern China. Springer publishing. ISBN 978-9024705528. pp. 92, 106.
  6. ^ "Three Principles of the People". Encyclopædia Britannica.
  7. ^ Schoppa, R. Keith (2000). The Columbia Guide to Modern Chinese History. Columbia University Press. p. 73, 165, 186. ISBN 978-0-231-50037-1.
  8. ^ Sun, Yat-sen (3 August 1924). 三民主義:民生主義 第一講 [Three Principles of the People: People's living, Lecture 1]. 國父全集 [Complete collection of the National Father's scripts] (in Chinese). pp. 129–145. Archived from the original on 11 May 2019. Retrieved 30 December 2019 – via 中山學術資料庫系統. 我們國民黨提倡民生主義,已經有了二十多年,不講社會主義,祇講民生主義。社會主義和民生主義的範圍是甚麼關係呢?近來美國有一位馬克思的信徒威廉氏,深究馬克思的主義,見得自己同門互相紛爭,一定是馬克思學說還有不充分的地方,所以他便發表意見,說馬克思以物質為歷史的重心是不對的,社會問題才是歷史的重心;而社會問題中又以生存為重心,那才是合理。民生問題就是生存問題......
  9. ^ a b Wang, Ermin (王爾敏) (2011). 思想創造時代:孫中山與中華民國. Showwe Information Co., Ltd. p. 274. ISBN 978-9862217078.
  10. ^ Wang, Shounan (王壽南) (2007). Sun Zhong-san. Commercial Press Taiwan. p. 23. ISBN 978-9570521566.
  11. ^ a b 游梓翔 (2006). 領袖的聲音: 兩岸領導人政治語藝批評, 1906–2006. Wu-Nan Book Inc. p. 82. ISBN 978-9571142685.
  12. ^ 门杰丹 (4 December 2003). 浓浓乡情系中原—访孙中山先生孙女孙穗芳博士 [Central Plains Nostalgia-Interview with Dr. Sun Suifang, granddaughter of Sun Yat-sen]. China News (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 8 July 2011. Translate this Chinese article to English
  13. ^ Bohr, P. Richard (2009). "Did the Hakka Save China? Ethnicity, Identity, and Minority Status in China's Modern Transformation". Headwaters. 26 (3): 16.
  14. ^ Sun Yat-sen. Stanford University Press. 1998. p. 24. ISBN 978-0804740111.
  15. ^ a b c d Kubota, Gary (20 August 2017). "Students from China study Sun Yat-sen on Maui". Star-Advertiser. Honolulu. Retrieved 21 August 2017.
  16. ^ a b c d KHON web staff (3 June 2013). "Chinese government officials attend Sun Mei statue unveiling on Maui". KHON2. Honolulu. Archived from the original on 22 August 2017. Retrieved 21 August 2017.
  17. ^ a b c d "Sun Yat-sen Memorial Park". Hawaii Guide. Retrieved 21 August 2017.
  18. ^ a b c d "Sun Yet Sen Park". County of Maui. Retrieved 21 August 2017.[permanent dead link]
  19. ^ Gonschor, Lorenz (2 January 2017). "Revisiting the Hawaiian Influence on the Political Thought of Sun Yat-sen". The Journal of Pacific History. 52 (1): 52–67. doi:10.1080/00223344.2017.1319128. ISSN 0022-3344. S2CID 157738017.
  20. ^ "Dr. Sun Yat-Sen (class of 1882)". ʻIolani School. Archived from the original on 20 July 2011.
  21. ^ Brannon, John (16 August 2007). "Chinatown park, statue honor Sun Yat-sen". Honolulu Star-Bulletin. Archived from the original on 4 October 2012. Retrieved 17 August 2007. Sun graduated from Iolani School in 1882, then attended Oahu College—now known as Punahou School—for one semester.
  22. ^ 基督教與近代中國革命起源:以孫中山為例. Big5.chinanews.com:89. Archived from the original on 28 October 2011. Retrieved 26 September 2011.
  23. ^ "Central and Western Heritage Trail". Archived from the original on 9 July 2021. Retrieved 6 July 2021.
  24. ^ "The Diocesan Home and Orphanage". Sun Yat-sen Historic Trail. 17 November 2017. Retrieved 6 July 2021.
  25. ^ 中山史蹟徑一日遊. Lcsd.gov.hk. Archived from the original on 2 November 2011. Retrieved 26 September 2011.
  26. ^ "The Government Central School". Sun Yat-sen Historic Trail. 14 January 2018. Retrieved 6 July 2021.
  27. ^ a b Sun, Yat-sen. "The Imbroglio". Kidnapped in London.
  28. ^ Growing with Hong Kong: the University and its graduates: the first 90 years. Hong Kong University Press. 2003. ISBN 978-962-209-613-4.
  29. ^ a b c d Singtao Daily. 28 February 2011. 特別策劃 section A10. "Sun Yat-sen Xinhai revolution 100th anniversary edition".
  30. ^ South China Morning Post. "Birth of Sun heralds dawn of revolutionary era for China". 11 November 1999.
  31. ^ "...At present there are some seven members in the interior belonging to our mission, and two here, one I baptized last Sabbath, a young man who is attending the Government Central School. We had a very pleasant communion service yesterday..." – Hager to Clark, 5 May 1884, ABC 16.3.8: South China v.4, no.17, p.3
  32. ^ "...We had a pleasant communion yesterday and received one Chinaman into the church..." – Hager to Pond, 5 May 1884, ABC 16.3.8: South China v.4, no.18, p.3 postscript
  33. ^ Rev. C. R. Hager, 'The First Citizen of the Chinese Republic', The Medical Missionary v.22 1913, p.184
  34. ^ Bergère: 26
  35. ^ a b Soong, (1997) p. 151-178
  36. ^ 中西區區議會 [Central & Western District Council] (November 2006), 孫中山先生史蹟徑 [Dr Sun Yat-sen Historical Trail] (PDF), Dr. Sun Yat-sen Museum (in Chinese and English), Hong Kong, China, p. 30, archived from the original (PDF) on 24 February 2012, retrieved 15 September 2012
  37. ^ Bard, Solomon. Voices from the past: Hong Kong, 1842–1918. (2002). HK University Press. ISBN 978-9622095748. p. 183.
  38. ^ a b Curthoys, Ann; Lake, Marilyn (2005). Connected worlds: history in transnational perspective. ANU publishing. ISBN 978-1920942441. p. 101.
  39. ^ Wei, Julie Lee. Myers Ramon Hawley. Gillin, Donald G. (1994). Prescriptions for saving China: selected writings of Sun Yat-sen. Hoover press. ISBN 978-0817992811.
  40. ^ a b 王恆偉 (2006). #5 清 [Chapter 5. Qing dynasty]. 中國歷史講堂. 中華書局. p. 146. ISBN 9628885286.
  41. ^ Bergère: 39–40
  42. ^ Bergère: 40–41
  43. ^ Yang, Zhiyi (2023). Poetry, History, Memory: Wang Jingwei and China in Dark Times. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. p. 31. doi:10.3998/mpub.12697845. ISBN 978-0-472-07650-5. OCLC 1404445939, 1417484741.
  44. ^ a b (Chinese) Yang, Bayun; Yang, Xing'an (2010). Yeung Ku-wan – A Biography Written by a Family Member. Bookoola. p. 17. ISBN 978-9881804167
  45. ^ Faure, David (1997). Society. Hong Kong University Press. ISBN 978-9622093935., founder Tse Tsan-tai's account
  46. ^ a b c João de Pina-Cabral. (2002). Between China and Europe: person, culture and emotion in Macao. Berg publishing. ISBN 978-0-8264-5749-3. p. 209.
  47. ^ a b c Bevir, Mark (2010). Encyclopedia of Political Theory. Sage publishing. ISBN 978-1412958653. p 168.
  48. ^ Lin, Xiaoqing Diana. (2006). Peking University: Chinese Scholarship And Intellectuals, 1898–1937. SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0791463222. p. 27.
  49. ^ a b Paul Wood (November–December 2011). "The Other Maui Sun". Wailuku, Hawaii: Maui Nō Ka ʻOi Magazine. Retrieved 2 February 2017.
  50. ^ "Sun Yat-sen | Chinese leader". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 31 March 2018.
  51. ^ Wong, J.Y. (1986). The Origins of a Heroic Image: SunYat Sen in London, 1896–1987. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.
    as summarized in
    Clark, David J.; Gerald McCoy (2000). The Most Fundamental Legal Right: Habeas Corpus in the Commonwealth. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 162. ISBN 978-0198265849.
  52. ^ Cantlie, James (1913). Sun Yat Sen and the Awakening of China. London: Jarrold & Sons.
  53. ^ "JapanFocus". Old.japanfocus.org. Archived from the original on 16 March 2012. Retrieved 26 September 2011.
  54. ^ Thornber, Karen Laura. (2009). Empire of Texts in Motion: Chinese, Korean, and Taiwanese Transculturations of Japanese Literature. Harvard University Press. p. 404.
  55. ^ Ocampo, Ambeth (2010). Looking Back 2. Pasig: Anvil Publishing. pp. 8–11.
  56. ^ Gao, James Zheng. (2009). Historical dictionary of modern China (1800–1949). Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0810849303. Chronology section.
  57. ^ Bergère: 86
  58. ^ 劉崇稜 (2004). 日本近代文學精讀. 五南圖書出版股份有限公司. p. 71. ISBN 978-9571136752.
  59. ^ Frédéric, Louis. (2005). Japan Encyclopedia. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674017535. p. 651.
  60. ^ 三十三年落花夢 Taiwan Ebook, National Central Library
  61. ^ Eiji Murashima. "The Origins of Chinese Nationalism in Thailand" (PDF). Journal of Asia-Pacific Studies (Waseda University). Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 March 2017. Retrieved 30 March 2017.
  62. ^ Eric Lim. "Soi Sun Yat Sen the legacy of a revolutionary". Tour Bangkok Legacies. Retrieved 30 March 2017.
  63. ^ a b c 孫中山思想 3學者演說精采. World journal. 4 March 2011. Archived from the original on 13 May 2013. Retrieved 26 September 2011.
  64. ^ "Sun Yat-sen: Certification of Live Birth in Hawaii". San Francisco, CA, US: Scribd. Retrieved 15 September 2012.
  65. ^ a b Smyser, A.A. (2000). Sun Yat-sen's strong links to Hawaii. Honolulu Star Bulletin. "Sun renounced it in due course. It did, however, help him circumvent the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, which became applicable when Hawaii was annexed to the United States in 1898."
  66. ^ Department of Justice. Immigration and Naturalization Service. San Francisco District Office. "Immigration Arrival Investigation case file for SunYat Sen, 1904–1925" (PDF). Records of the Immigration and Naturalization Service, 1787–2004 ]. Washington, DC, US: National Archives and Records Administration. pp. 92–152. Immigration Arrival Investigation case file for SunYat Sen, 1904–1925 at the National Archives and Records Administration. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 October 2013. Retrieved 15 September 2012. Note that one immigration official recorded that Sun was born in Kula, a district of Maui, Hawaii.
  67. ^ a b c d 計秋楓, 朱慶葆. (2001). 中國近代史, Volume 1. Chinese University Press. ISBN 978-9622019874. p. 468.
  68. ^ "Internal Threats – The Manchu Qing Dynasty (1644–1911) – Imperial China – History – China – Asia". Countriesquest.com. Retrieved 26 September 2011.
  69. ^ Streets of George Town, Penang. Areca Books. 2007. pp. 34–. ISBN 978-9839886009.
  70. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Yan, Qinghuang. (2008). The Chinese in Southeast Asia and beyond: socioeconomic and political dimensions. World Scientific publishing.ISBN 978-9812790477. pp. 182–187.
  71. ^ a b "Sun Yat Sen Nanyang Memorial Hall". Wanqingyuan.org.sg. Archived from the original on 20 August 2013. Retrieved 7 May 2015.
  72. ^ "United Chinese Library". Roots. National Heritage Board. Archived from the original on 3 December 2019. Retrieved 15 September 2019.
  73. ^ a b c Khoo, Salma Nasution. (2008). Sun Yat Sen in Penang. Areca publishing. ISBN 978-9834283483.
  74. ^ Tang Jiaxuan (2011). Heavy Storm and Gentle Breeze: A Memoir of China's Diplomacy. HarperCollins publishing. ISBN 978-0062067258.
  75. ^ Nanyang Zonghui bao. The Union Times paper. 11 November 1909 p2.
  76. ^ a b c Bergère: 188
  77. ^ Chan, Sue Meng (2013). Road to Revolution: Dr. Sun Yat Sen and His Comrades in Ipoh. Singapore. Singapore: Sun Yat Sen Nanyang Memorial Hall. p. 17. ISBN 978-9810782092.
  78. ^ Khoo & Lubis, Salma Nassution & Abdur-Razzaq (2005). Kinta Valley: Pioneering Malaysia's Modern Development. Areca Books. p. 231.
  79. ^ a b 王恆偉. (2005) (2006) 中國歷史講堂 No. 5 清. 中華書局. ISBN 9628885286. pp. 195–198.
  80. ^ Bronze Relief of the 1911 Guangzhou (廣州) Uprising in Taipei Revolutionary Martyrs’ Shrine (YouTube)
  81. ^ Carol, Steven. (2009). Encyclopedia of Days: Start the Day with History. iUniverse publishing. ISBN 978-0595482368.
  82. ^ Bergère: 210
  83. ^ Lane, Roger deWardt. (2008). Encyclopedia Small Silver Coins. ISBN 978-0615244792.
  84. ^ a b Welland, Sasah Su-ling. (2007). A Thousand Miles of Dreams: The Journeys of Two Chinese Sisters. Rowman Littlefield Publishing. ISBN 978-0742553149. p. 87.
  85. ^ a b c d Fu, Zhengyuan. (1993). Autocratic tradition and Chinese politics(Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521442282). pp. 153–154.
  86. ^ Bergère: 226
  87. ^ a b c d Ch'ien Tuan-sheng. The Government and Politics of China 1912–1949. Harvard University Press, 1950; rpr. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0804705516. pp. 83–91.
  88. ^ Ernest Young, "Politics in the Aftermath of Revolution", in John King Fairbank, ed., The Cambridge History of China: Republican China 1912–1949, Part 1 (Cambridge University Press, 1983; ISBN 978-0521235419), p. 228.
  89. ^ Altman, Albert A., and Harold Z. Schiffrin. "Sun Yat-Sen and the Japanese: 1914–16." Modern Asian Studies, vol. 6, no. 4, 1972, pp. 385–400. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/311539
  90. ^ South China Morning post. Sun Yat-sen's durable and malleable legacy. 26 April 2011.
  91. ^ Thampi, Madhavi. India and China in the Colonial World. Taylor & Francis. p. 229.
  92. ^ South China morning post. 1913–1922. 9 November 2003.
  93. ^ a b Bergère & Lloyd: 273
  94. ^ Kirby, William C. [2000] (2000). State and economy in republican China: a handbook for scholars, volume 1. Harvard publishing. ISBN 978-0674003682. p. 59.
  95. ^ Crean, Jeffrey (2024). The Fear of Chinese Power: an International History. New Approaches to International History series. London, UK: Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-350-23394-2.
  96. ^ Robert Payne (2008). Mao Tse-tung: Ruler of Red China. Read Books. p. 22. ISBN 978-1443725217. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  97. ^ Ross, Harold Wallace; White, Katharine Sergeant Angell (1980). Great Soviet Encyclopedia. p. 237. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  98. ^ Aleksandr Mikhaĭlovich Prokhorov (1982). Great Soviet encyclopedia, Volume 25. Macmillan. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  99. ^ Bernice A Verbyla (2010). Aunt Mae's China. Xulon Press. p. 170. ISBN 978-1609574567. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  100. ^ M.N. Roy's Mission to China. University of California Press. pp. 19–20.
  101. ^ Gao. James Zheng. (2009). Historical dictionary of modern China (1800–1949). Scarecrow press. ISBN 978-0810849303. p. 251.
  102. ^ Spence, Jonathan D. [1990] (1990). The search for modern China. WW Norton & company publishing. ISBN 978-0-393-30780-1. p. 345.
  103. ^ Ji, Zhaojin. (2003). A history of modern Shanghai banking: the rise and decline of China's finance capitalism. M.E. Sharpe Publishing. ISBN 978-0765610034. p. 165.
  104. ^ Ho, Virgil K.Y. (2005). Understanding Canton: Rethinking Popular Culture in the Republican Period. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0199282714
  105. ^ Carroll, John Mark. Edge of Empires:Chinese Elites and British Colonials in Hong Kong. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674017013
  106. ^ Ma Yuxin (2010). Women journalists and feminism in China, 1898–1937. Cambria Press. ISBN 978-1604976601. p. 156.
  107. ^ 马福祥,临夏回族自治州马福祥,马福祥介绍 – 走遍中国. www.elycn.com. Archived from the original on 13 May 2013. Retrieved 23 June 2017.
  108. ^ Calder, Kent; Ye, Min (2010). The Making of Northeast Asia. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0804769228.
  109. ^ a b c Barth, Rolf F.; Chen, Jie (1 January 2016). "What did Sun Yat-sen really die of? A re-assessment of his illness and the cause of his death". Chinese Journal of Cancer. 35 (1): 81. doi:10.1186/s40880-016-0144-9. ISSN 1944-446X. PMC 5009495. PMID 27586157.
  110. ^ a b "Dr. Sun Yat-sen Dies in Peking". The New York Times. 12 March 1925. Retrieved 28 December 2017.
  111. ^ "Lost Leader". Time. 23 March 1925. Archived from the original on 4 May 2008. Retrieved 3 August 2008. A year ago his death was prematurely announced; but it was not until last January that he was taken to the Rockefeller Hospital at Peking and declared to be in the advanced stages of cancer of the liver.
  112. ^ Sharman, L. (1968) [1934]. Sun Yat-sen: His life and times. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. pp. 305–306, 310.
  113. ^ 國父遺囑 [Founding Father's Will]. Vincent's Calligraphy. Archived from the original on 7 August 2016. Retrieved 14 May 2016.
  114. ^ Bullock, M.B. (2011). The oil prince's legacy: Rockefeller philanthropy in China. Redwood City, CA: Stanford University Press. p. 81. ISBN 978-0804776882.
  115. ^ Leinwand, Gerald (2002). 1927: High Tide of the 1920s. Basic Books. p. 101. ISBN 978-1568582450. Retrieved 29 December 2017.[permanent dead link]
  116. ^ a b "The Sydney Morning Herald. Sun Yat-Sen's Coffin. Soviet's Tawdry Gift". National Library of Australia. 25 April 1925. Retrieved 6 July 2023.
  117. ^ "Clinical record copies from the Peking Union Medical College Hospital decrypt the real cause of death of Sun Yat-sen". Nanfang Daily (in Chinese). 11 November 2013. Archived from the original on 7 November 2017. Retrieved 28 December 2017.
  118. ^ "她是中華民國國父的妻子 但是全力支持中國共產黨 -- 上報 / 生活".
  119. ^ Uradyn Erden Bulag (2002). Dilemmas The Mongols at China's edge: history and the politics of national unity. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 51. ISBN 0742511448. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  120. ^ Stéphane A. Dudoignon; Hisao Komatsu; Yasushi Kosugi (2006). Intellectuals in the modern Islamic world: transmission, transformation, communication. Taylor & Francis. pp. 134, 375. ISBN 978-0415368353. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  121. ^ "KMT Divided Over God-Status of Founder Sun Yat-sen". The News Lens. 28 April 2021.
  122. ^ Rosecrance, Richard N. Stein, Arthur A. (2006). No more states?: globalization, national self-determination, and terrorism. Rowman & Littlefield publishing. ISBN 978-0742539440. p. 269.
  123. ^ Selected Works of Mao Tse-Tung: Volume 5, Volume 5. 2014. p. 333.
  124. ^ Dimitrakis, Panagiotis (2017). The Secret War for China: Espionage, Revolution and the Rise of Mao. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 4.
  125. ^ a b Shan, Patrick Fuliang (2024). "What Did the CCP Learn from the Past?". In Fang, Qiang; Li, Xiaobing (eds.). China under Xi Jinping: A New Assessment. Leiden University Press. p. 41. ISBN 9789087284411.
  126. ^ Mao, Zedong. "On New Democracy". www.marxists.org. Retrieved 7 May 2022.
  127. ^ "民生主义第一讲" . 三民主义  (in Chinese) – via Wikisource.
  128. ^ a b c d Kenneth Tan (3 October 2011). "Granddaughter of Sun Yat-Sen accuses China of distorting his legacy". Shanghaiist. Archived from the original on 11 October 2011. Retrieved 8 October 2011.
  129. ^ 国父孙女轰中共扭曲三民主义愚民_多维新闻网 (in Chinese). China.dwnews.com. 1 October 2011. Archived from the original on 7 October 2011. Retrieved 8 October 2011.
  130. ^ a b "Is Sun Yat-sen the 'founding father'?". Taipei Times. 29 February 2016. Archived from the original on 29 December 2019. Retrieved 9 November 2022.
  131. ^ a b 人民网—孙中山遭辱骂 "台独"想搞"台湾国父". People's Daily. Archived from the original on 13 May 2013. Retrieved 12 October 2011.
  132. ^ a b Chiu Hei-yuan (5 October 2011). "History should be based on facts". Taipei Times. p. 8.
  133. ^ Lu, P.C.; Brown, J.R. (2023). Ways of Confucius and of Christ: From Prime Minister of China to Benedictine Monk. Ignatius Press. ISBN 978-1-64229-279-4. Retrieved 29 July 2024.
  134. ^ Doyle, G. Wright (10 October 1911). "Sun Yat-sen". BDCC. Retrieved 29 July 2024.
  135. ^ Ruokanen, M.; Huang, P.; Huang, B. (2010). Christianity and Chinese Culture. Eerdmans Publishing Company. p. 93. ISBN 978-0-8028-6556-4. Retrieved 29 July 2024.
  136. ^ Schiffrin, H. (2023). Sun Yat-Sen and the Origins of the Chinese Revolution. University of California Press. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-520-35101-1. Retrieved 29 July 2024.
  137. ^ Lorenz Gonschor, "Revisiting the Hawaiian Influence on the Political Thought of Sun Yat-sen." Journal of Pacific History 52.1 (2017): 52–67.
  138. ^ Eric Helleiner, "Sun Yat-sen as a Pioneer of International Development." History of Political Economy 50.S1 (2018): 76–93.
  139. ^ Stephen Shen, and Robert Payne, Sun Yat-Sen: A Portrait (1946) p 182
  140. ^ Unger, Jonathan (2015). Using the Past to Serve the Present: Historiography and Politics in Contemporary China. Routledge. p. 248.
  141. ^ Godley, Michael R. (1987). "Socialism with Chinese Characteristics: Sun Yatsen and the International Development of China". The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs. 18 (18): 109–125. doi:10.2307/2158585. JSTOR 2158585. S2CID 155947428.
  142. ^ The Far East in the Modern World. Dryden Press. 1975. p. 384.
  143. ^ Westad, Odd Arne (2012). Restless Empire: China and the World Since 1750. Random House. p. 155.
  144. ^ France-Malone, Derek (2011). Political Dissent: A Global Reader: Modern Sources. Lexington Books. p. 175.
  145. ^ Sun Yat-sen. Stanford University Press. 1998. p. 168.
  146. ^ Peng, Chun (2018). Rural Land Takings Law in Modern China: Origin and Evolution. Cambridge University Press. p. 135.
  147. ^ a b c d Rodriguez, Sarah Mellors (2023). Reproductive realities in modern China : birth control and abortion, 1911-2021. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1009027335. OCLC 1366057905.
  148. ^ Pan-Asianism A Documentary History, 1920–Present. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. 2011. p. 78.
  149. ^ Pan-Asianism A Documentary History, 1920–Present. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. 2011. p. 85.
  150. ^ 孫中山學術研究資訊網 – 國父的家世與求學 [Dr. Sun Yat-sen's family background and schooling]. [sun.yatsen.gov.tw/ sun.yatsen.gov.tw] (in Chinese). 16 November 2005. Archived from the original on 24 September 2011. Retrieved 2 October 2011.
  151. ^ "Sun Yat-sen's descendant wants to see unified China". News.xinhuanet.com. 11 September 2011. Archived from the original on 30 October 2014. Retrieved 2 October 2011.
  152. ^ "Antong Cafe, The Oldest Coffee Mill in Malaysia". Archived from the original on 12 January 2018. Retrieved 12 January 2018.
  153. ^ a b Correspondent, Our. "Japan-Revolution". www.asiasentinel.com. Retrieved 31 January 2022. {{cite web}}: |last= has generic name (help)
  154. ^ Isaac F. Marcosson, Turbulent Years (1938), p.249
  155. ^ "Россия, Астраханская область, Астрахань, улица Сун Ят-Сена". mapdata.ru. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
  156. ^ "Россия, Башкортостан, Уфа, улица Сун-Ят-Сена". mapdata.ru. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
  157. ^ "Россия, Якутия, Алданский улус, Алдан, улица Сунь-ят-Сена". mapdata.ru. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
  158. ^ "ЮБИЛЕЙНЫЕ ПЕРЕИМЕНОВАНИЯ". omsknews.ru. 16 May 2005. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
  159. ^ Guy, Nancy. (2005). Peking Opera and Politics in Taiwan. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0252029739. p. 67.
  160. ^ "Sun Yet Sen Penang Base – News 17". Sunyatsenpenang.com. 19 November 2010. Retrieved 2 October 2011.[dead link]
  161. ^ "Sun Yat-sen's US birth certificate to be shown". Taipei Times. 2 October 2011. p. 3. Retrieved 8 October 2011.
  162. ^ "Google Maps". Retrieved 6 December 2015.
  163. ^ Kaur, Manjit (2 January 2020). "On the trail of Sun Yat Sen and comrades". The Star.
  164. ^ Chan, Sue Meng (2013). Road to Revolution: Dr. Sun Yat Sen and His Comrades in Ipoh. Singapore: Sun Yat Sen Nanyang Memorial Hall. ISBN 978-9810782092.
  165. ^ "Queens Campus". www.youvisit.com. Archived from the original on 18 May 2017. Retrieved 23 June 2017.
  166. ^ "City to Dedicate Statue and Rename Park to Honor Dr. Sun Yat-Sen". The City and County of Honolulu. 12 November 2007. Archived from the original on 27 October 2011. Retrieved 9 April 2010.
  167. ^ "Sun Yat-sen". Archived from the original on 20 October 2017. Retrieved 6 December 2015.
  168. ^ "St. Mary's Square in San Francisco Chinatown – The largest chinatown outside of Asia". Retrieved 6 December 2015.
  169. ^ "Chinese Youth Society of Melbourne". www.cysm.org. Chinese Youth Society of Melbourne. Archived from the original on 29 July 2012. Retrieved 23 January 2012.
  170. ^ a b c "Char Asian-Pacific Study Room". Library.kcc.hawaii.edu. 23 June 2009. Archived from the original on 2 April 2012. Retrieved 26 September 2011.
  171. ^ "Mars Exploration Rover Mission: Press Release Images: Spirit". Marsrover.nasa.gov. Archived from the original on 7 June 2012. Retrieved 2 October 2011.
  172. ^ Maisel, Todd (12 November 2019). "Chinatown park plaza renamed for Dr. Sun Yat-Sen with bronze statue". www.amny.com. Retrieved 14 November 2019.
  173. ^ Pereira, Sydney (6 February 2019). "Chinese Revolutionary Honored With LES Statue". Lower East Side-Chinatown, NY Patch. Retrieved 14 November 2019.
  174. ^ "Opera Dr Sun Yat-sen to stage in Hong Kong". News.xinhuanet.com. 7 September 2011. Archived from the original on 1 November 2014. Retrieved 8 July 2013.
  175. ^ Gerard Raymond, "Between East and West: An Interview with David Henry Hwang" on slantmagazine.com, 28 October 2011
  176. ^ "Commemoration of 1911 Revolution mounting in China". News.xinhuanet.com. Archived from the original on 26 November 2013. Retrieved 2 October 2011.
  177. ^ "Space: Above and Beyond s01e22 Episode Script SS". www.springfieldspringfield.co.uk. Archived from the original on 15 February 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
  178. ^ 《斜路黃花》向革命者致意 (in Traditional Chinese). Takungpao.com. Retrieved 12 October 2011.[dead link]
  179. ^ 元智大學管理學院 (in Traditional Chinese). Cm.yzu.edu.tw. Archived from the original on 2 April 2012. Retrieved 26 September 2011.

Further reading

[edit]
  • Bergère, Marie-Claire (2000). Sun Yat-sen. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0804740119. online free to borrow
  • Buck, Pearl S., The Man Who Changed China: The Story of Sun Yat-sen (1953) online, popular biography by famous writer
  • Chen, Stephen, and Robert Payne. Sun Yat Sen A Portrait (1946) online
  • Cheng, Chu-yuan ed. Sun Yat-sen's Doctrine In The Modern World (1989)
  • D'Elia, Paschal M. Sun Yat-sen. His Life and Its Meaning, a Critical Biography (1936)
  • Du, Yue. "Sun Yat-sen as Guofu: Competition over Nationalist Party Orthodoxy in the Second Sino-Japanese War." Modern China 45.2 (2019): 201–235.
  • Jansen, Marius B. The Japanese and Sun Yat-sen (1967) online
  • Kayloe, Tjio. The Unfinished Revolution: Sun Yat-Sen and the Struggle for Modern China (2017). excerpt
  • Khoo, Salma Nasution. Sun Yat Sen in Penang (Areca Books, 2008).
  • Lee, Lai To; Lee, Hock Guan, eds. (2011). Sun Yat-Sen, Nanyang and the 1911 Revolution. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 978-9814345460.
  • Linebarger, Paul M.A. Political Doctrines Of Sun Yat-sen (1937) online free
  • Martin, Bernard. Sun Yat-sen's vision for China (1966)
  • Restarick, Henry B., Sun Yat-sen, Liberator of China. (Yale UP, 1931)
  • Schiffrin, Harold Z. "The Enigma of Sun Yat-sen" in Mary Wright, ed., China in Revolution: The First Phase 1900-1913 (1968) pp 443–476.
  • Schiffrin, Harold Z. Sun Yat-sen: Reluctant Revolutionary (1980)
  • Schiffrin, Harold Z. Sun Yat-sen and the origins of the Chinese revolution (1968).
  • Shen, Stephen and Robert Payne. Sun Yat-Sen: A Portrait (1946) online free
  • Soong, Irma Tam. "Sun Yat-sen's Christian Schooling in Hawai'i." The Hawaiian Journal of History, vol. 31 (1997) online Archived 10 October 2019 at the Wayback Machine
  • Wilbur, Clarence Martin. Sun Yat-sen, frustrated patriot (Columbia University Press, 1976), a major scholarly biography online
  • Yu, George T. "The 1911 Revolution: Past, Present, and Future", Asian Survey, 31#10 (1991), pp. 895–904, online historiography
[edit]
Political offices
Preceded byas Emperor of the Qing dynasty Head of state of China
as Provisional President of the Republic of China

1912
Succeeded byas Provisional President of the Republic of China
Preceded by
Office created
Generalissimo of the Military Government of Nationalist China
1917–1918
Succeeded by
Governing Committee of the Military Government of Nationalist China
Preceded by
Himself
as Generalissimo of the Military Government of Nationalist China
Member of the Governing Committee of the Military Government of Nationalist China
1918
Succeeded byas Chairman of the Governing Committee of the Military Government of Nationalist China
Preceded byas Chairman of the Governing Committee of the Military Government of Nationalist China Member of the Governing Committee of the Military Government of Nationalist China
1920–1921
Succeeded by
Himself
as Extraordinary President of Nationalist China
Preceded by
Generalissimo of the Military Government of Nationalist China
Extraordinary President of Nationalist China
1921–1922
Succeeded by
Himself
as Generalissimo of the Nationalist China
Preceded by
Office created
Generalissimo of the National Government of Nationalist China
1923–1925
Succeeded by
Hu Hanmin
Acting
Party political offices
Preceded byas President of the Kuomintang Premier of the Kuomintang
1913–1914
Succeeded by
Himself
as Premier of the Chinese Revolutionary Party
Preceded by
Himself
as Premier of the Chinese Revolutionary Party
Premier of the Kuomintang of China
1919–1925
Succeeded byas Chairman