Jump to content

Laos

Edit links
Coordinates: 18°N 105°E / 18°N 105°E / 18; 105
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the country. For other uses, see Laos (disambiguation) and Lao (disambiguation).

Lao People's Democratic Republic
  • ສາທາລະນະລັດ ປະຊາທິປະໄຕ ປະຊາຊົນລາວ (Lao)
  • Sathalanalat Paxathipatai Paxaxon Lao
Motto: ສັນຕິພາບ ເອກະລາດ ປະຊາທິປະໄຕ ເອກະພາບ ວັດທະນະຖາວອນ
Santiphap, Ekalat, Paxathipatai, Ekaphap, Vatthanathavon
"Peace, Independence, Democracy, Unity and Prosperity"
Anthem: ເພງຊາດລາວ
Pheng Xat Lao
"Hymn of the Lao People"
Location of Laos (green)

in ASEAN (dark grey)  –  [Legend]

Capital
and largest city
Vientiane
17°58′N 102°36′E / 17.967°N 102.600°E / 17.967; 102.600
Official languagesLao
Spoken languages
Ethnic groups
(2015[2])
Religion
Demonym(s)
GovernmentUnitary Marxist–Leninist one-party socialist republic
Thongloun Sisoulith
Bounthong Chitmany
Pany Yathotou
Sonexay Siphandone
Saysomphone Phomvihane
LegislatureNational Assembly
Formation
1353–1707
• Kingdoms of Luang Prabang, Vientiane and Champasak
1707–1778
• Vassals of Siam
1778–1893
1893–1953
1945–1949
11 May 1947
22 October 1953
• Monarchy abolished
2 December 1975
Area
• Total
236,800 km2 (91,400 sq mi)[5] (82nd)
• Water (%)
2
Population
• 2022 estimate
7,749,595[5] (103rd)
• Density
26.7/km2 (69.2/sq mi)
GDP (PPP)2024 estimate
• Total
Increase $74.760 billion[6] (106th)
• Per capita
Increase $9,727[6] (125th)
GDP (nominal)2024 estimate
• Total
Increase $14.949 billion[6] (145th)
• Per capita
Decrease $1,945[6] (152nd)
Gini (2012)36.4[7]
medium inequality
HDI (2022)Increase 0.620[8]
medium (139th)
CurrencyKip (₭) (LAK)
Time zoneUTC+7 (ICT)
Drives onright
Calling code+856
ISO 3166 codeLA
Internet TLD.la

Laos,[c] officially the Lao People's Democratic Republic (LPDR),[d] is the only landlocked country in Southeast Asia. It is bordered by Myanmar and China to the northwest, Vietnam to the east, Cambodia to the southeast, and Thailand to the west and southwest.[12] Its capital and most populous city is Vientiane.

Laos traces its historic and cultural identity to Lan Xang, a kingdom which existed from the 13th century to the 18th century.[13] Because of its geographical location, the kingdom became a hub for overland trade.[13] After a period of internal conflict, Lan Xang broke up into the Kingdom of Luang Phrabang, the Kingdom of Vientiane and the Kingdom of Champasak. In 1893, the 3 kingdoms were united under a French protectorate. Laos was occupied by Japan during World War II and regained independence in 1945 as a Japanese puppet state and was re-colonised by France, until it won autonomy in 1949.

Laos regained independence in 1953 as the Kingdom of Laos, with a constitutional monarchy under Sisavang Vong. A civil war began in 1959, which saw the communist Pathet Lao, supported by North Vietnam and the Soviet Union, fight against the Royal Lao Armed Forces, supported by the United States. After the Vietnam War ended in 1975, the Lao People's Revolutionary Party established a one-party socialist republic espousing Marxism-Leninism, ending the civil war and monarchy, and beginning a period of alignment with the Soviet Union until the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991.

Laos's strategies for development are based on generating electricity from rivers and selling the power to its neighbours, namely Thailand, China and Vietnam, and its initiative to become a "land-linked" nation, as evidenced by the construction of 4 railways connecting Laos and neighbours.[14][15] Laos has been referred to as one of Southeast Asia and Pacific's fastest growing economies by the World Bank with annual GDP growth averaging 7.4% since 2009,[16][17] while being classified as a least developed country by the United Nations. Laos is a member of the Asia-Pacific Trade Agreement, the ASEAN, East Asia Summit, La Francophonie, and the World Trade Organization.[18]

Etymology

[edit]

The word Laos was coined by the French, who united the 3 Lao kingdoms in French Indochina in 1893. The name of the country is spelled the same as the plural of the most common ethnic group, the Lao people.[19] In English, the "s" in the name of the country is pronounced, and not silent.[19][20][21][22][23]

History

[edit]
Main article: History of Laos

Prehistory

[edit]
Pha That Luang in Vientiane is the national symbol of Laos.

A human skull was recovered in 2009 from the Tam Pa Ling Cave in the Annamite Mountains in northern Laos; the skull is at least 46,000 years old, making it the oldest modern human fossil found to date in Southeast Asia.[24] Stone artifacts including Hoabinhian types have been found at sites dating to the Pleistocene in northern Laos.[25] Archaeological evidence suggests an agriculturist society developed during the 4th millennium BC.[26] Burial jars and other kinds of sepulchers suggest a society in which bronze objects appeared around 1500 BC, and iron tools were known from 700 BC. The proto-historic period is characterised by contact with Chinese and Indian civilisations. According to linguistic and other historical evidence, Tai-speaking tribes migrated southwestward to the territories of Laos and Thailand from Guangxi sometime between the 8th and 10th centuries.[27]

Lan Xang

[edit]
Main article: Lan Xang

Laos traces its history to the kingdom of Lan Xang ('million elephants'), which was founded in the 13th century by a Lao prince, Fa Ngum,[28]: 223  whose father had his family exiled from the Khmer Empire. Fa Ngum, with 10,000 Khmer troops, conquered some Lao principalities in the Mekong river basin, culminating in the capture of Vientiane. Ngum was descended from a line of Lao kings that traced back to Khoun Boulom.[29] He made Theravada Buddhism the state religion. His ministers, unable to tolerate his ruthlessness, forced him into exile to what is later the Thai province of Nan in 1373,[30] where he died. Fa Ngum's eldest son, Oun Heuan, ascended to the throne under the name Samsenethai and reigned for 43 years. Lan Xang became a trade centre during Samsenthai's reign, and after his death in 1421 it collapsed into warring factions for nearly a century.[31]

In 1520, Photisarath came to the throne and moved the capital from Luang Prabang to Vientiane to avoid a Burmese invasion. Setthathirath became king in 1548, after his father was killed, and ordered the construction of That Luang. Settathirath disappeared in the mountains on his way back from a military expedition into Cambodia, and Lan Xang fell into more than 70 years of "instability", involving Burmese invasion and civil war.[32]

In 1637, when Sourigna Vongsa ascended the throne, Lan Xang further expanded its frontiers. When he died without an heir, the kingdom split into 3 principalities. Between 1763 and 1769, Burmese armies overran northern Laos and annexed Luang Prabang, while Champasak eventually came under Siamese suzerainty.[33]

Chao Anouvong was installed as a vassal king of Vientiane by the Siamese. He encouraged a renaissance of Lao fine arts and literature and improved relations with Luang Phrabang. Under Vietnamese pressure, he rebelled against the Siamese in 1826. The rebellion failed, and Vientiane was ransacked.[34] Anouvong was taken to Bangkok as a prisoner, where he died.[35]

In a time period where the acquisition of humans was a priority over the ownership of land, the warfare of pre-modern Southeast Asia revolved around the seizing of people and resources from its enemies. A Siamese military campaign in Laos in 1876 was described by a British observer as having been "transformed into slave-hunting raids on a large scale".[36]

French Laos (1893–1953)

[edit]
Main articles: French protectorate of Laos and First Indochina War
Local Lao soldiers in the French Colonial guard, c. 1900

In the 19th century, Luang Prabang was ransacked by the Chinese Black Flag Army.[37] France rescued King Oun Kham and added Luang Phrabang to the protectorate of French Indochina. The Kingdom of Champasak and the territory of Vientiane were added to the protectorate. King Sisavangvong of Luang Phrabang became ruler of a unified Laos, and Vientiane once again became the capital.[38]

Laos produced tin, rubber, and coffee, and never accounted for more than 1% of French Indochina's exports. By 1940, around 600 French citizens lived in Laos.[39] Under French rule, the Vietnamese were encouraged to migrate to Laos, which was seen by the French colonists as a rational solution to a labour shortage within the confines of an Indochina-wide colonial space.[40] By 1943, the Vietnamese population stood at nearly 40,000, forming the majority in some cities of Laos and having the right to elect its own leaders.[41] As a result, 53% of the population of Vientiane, 85% of Thakhek, and 62% of Pakse were Vietnamese, with the exception of Luang Prabang where the population was predominantly Lao.[41] As late as 1945, the French drew up a plan to move a number of Vietnamese to 3 areas, i.e., the Vientiane Plain, Savannakhet region, and the Bolaven Plateau, which was derailed by the Japanese invasion of Indochina.[41] Otherwise, according to Martin Stuart-Fox, the Lao might well have lost control over their own country.[41]

During World War II in Laos, Vichy France, Thailand, Imperial Japan and Free France occupied Laos.[42] On 9 March 1945, a nationalist group declared Laos once more independent, with Luang Prabang as its capital, and on 7 April 1945 2 battalions of Japanese troops occupied the city.[43] The Japanese attempted to force Sisavang Vong (the king of Luang Phrabang) to declare Laotian independence, and on 8 April he instead declared an end to Laos's status as a French protectorate. The king then secretly sent Prince Kindavong to represent Laos to the Allied forces and Prince Sisavang as representative to the Japanese.[43] When Japan surrendered, some Lao nationalists (including Prince Phetsarath) declared Laotian independence, and by 1946, French troops had reoccupied the country and conferred autonomy on Laos.[44]

During the First Indochina War, the Indochinese Communist Party formed the Pathet Lao independence organisation. The Pathet Lao began a war against the French colonial forces with the aid of the Vietnamese independence organisation, the Viet Minh. In 1950, the French were forced to give Laos semi-autonomy as an "associated state" within the French Union. France remained in de facto control until 22 October 1953, when Laos gained full independence as a constitutional monarchy.[45][44]

Independence and communist rule (1953–)

[edit]
Main articles: History of Laos since 1945 and Laotian Civil War
French general Raoul Salan and Prince Sisavang Vatthana in Luang Prabang, 4 May 1953

The First Indochina War took place across French Indochina and eventually led to French defeat and the signing of a peace accord for Laos at the Geneva Conference of 1954. In 1960, amidst a series of rebellions in the Kingdom of Laos, fighting broke out between the Royal Lao Army (RLA) and the communist North Vietnamese and Soviet Union-backed Pathet Lao guerillas. A second Provisional Government of National Unity formed by Prince Souvanna Phouma in 1962 was unsuccessful, and the situation turned into civil war between the Royal Laotian government and the Pathet Lao. The Pathet Lao were backed militarily by the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) and the Viet Cong.[45][44]

Ruins of Muang Khoun, former capital of Xiangkhouang province, destroyed by the American bombing of Laos in the 1960s

Laos was a part of the Vietnam War since parts of Laos were invaded and occupied by North Vietnam since 1958 for use as a supply route for its war against South Vietnam. In response, the United States initiated a bombing campaign against the PAVN positions, supported regular and irregular anti-communist forces in Laos, and supported incursions into Laos by the Army of the Republic of Vietnam.[45][44]

Aerial bombardments against the PAVN/Pathet Lao forces were carried out by the United States to prevent the collapse of the Kingdom of Laos central government, and to deny the use of the Ho Chi Minh Trail to attack US forces in South Vietnam.[45] Between 1964 and 1973, the US dropped 2 million tons of bombs on Laos, nearly equal to the 2.1 million tons of bombs the US dropped on Europe and Asia during all of World War II, making Laos the most heavily bombed country in history relative to the size of its population; The New York Times notes this was "nearly a ton for every person in Laos".[46]

Some 80 million bombs failed to explode and remain scattered throughout the country. Unexploded ordnance (UXO), including cluster munitions and mines, kill or maim approximately 50 Laotians every year.[47] Due to the impact of cluster bombs during this war, Laos was an advocate of the Convention on Cluster Munitions to ban the weapons and was host to the First Meeting of States Parties to the convention in November 2010.[48]

Pathet Lao soldiers in Vientiane, 1973

In 1975, the Pathet Lao overthrew the royalist government, forcing King Savang Vatthana to abdicate on 2 December 1975. He later died in a re-education camp. Between 20,000 and 62,000 Laotians died during the civil war.[45][49]

On 2 December 1975, after taking control of the country, the Pathet Lao government under Kaysone Phomvihane renamed the country as the Lao People's Democratic Republic and signed agreements giving Vietnam the right to station armed forces and to appoint advisers to assist in overseeing the country. The ties between Laos and Vietnam were formalised via a treaty signed in 1977, which has since provided direction for Lao foreign policy, and provides the basis for Vietnamese involvement at levels of Lao political and economic life.[45][50] Laos was requested in 1979 by Vietnam to end relations with the People's Republic of China, leading to isolation in trade by China, the United States, and other countries.[51] In 1979, there were 50,000 PAVN troops stationed in Laos and as many as 6,000 civilian Vietnamese officials including 1,000 directly attached to the ministries in Vientiane.[52][53]

The conflict between Hmong rebels and Laos continued in areas of Laos, including in Saysaboune Closed Military Zone, Xaisamboune Closed Military Zone near Vientiane Province and Xiangkhouang Province. From 1975 to 1996, the United States resettled some 250,000 Lao refugees from Thailand, including 130,000 Hmong.[54]

On 27 May 2016, the 8th Government of Laos banned the exports of timber, with an express aim to help control the country's high deforestation rates and boost the country's domestic wood production industry.

On 3 December 2021, the 422-kilometre Boten-Vientiane railway, a flagship of the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), was opened.[55]

Geography

[edit]
Main article: Geography of Laos
Mekong River flowing through Luang Prabang
Paddy fields in Laos

Laos is the only landlocked country in Southeast Asia, and it lies mostly between latitudes 14° and 23°N (an area is south of 14°), and longitudes 100° and 108°E. Its forested landscape consists mostly of mountains, the highest of which is Phou Bia at 2,818 metres (9,245 ft), with some plains and plateaus. The Mekong River forms a part of the western boundary with Thailand, where the mountains of the Annamite Range form most of the eastern border with Vietnam and the Luang Prabang Range the northwestern border with the Thai highlands. There are 2 plateaus, the Xiangkhoang in the north and the Bolaven Plateau at the southern end. Laos can be considered to consist of 3 geographical areas: north, central, and south.[56] Laos had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 5.59/10, ranking it 98th globally out of 172 countries.[57]

In 1993, the Laos government set aside 21% of the nation's land area for habitat conservation preservation.[58] The country is 1 of 4 in the opium poppy growing region known as the "Golden Triangle".[59] According to the October 2007 UNODC fact book Opium Poppy Cultivation in South East Asia, the poppy cultivation area was 15 square kilometres (5.8 sq mi), down from 18 square kilometres (6.9 sq mi) in 2006.[60]

Climate

[edit]
Köppen climate classification map of Laos

The climate is mostly tropical savanna and influenced by the monsoon pattern.[61] There is a rainy season from May to October, followed by a dry season from November to April. Local tradition holds that there are 3 seasons (rainy, cool and hot) as the latter 2 months of the climatologically defined dry season are hotter than the earlier 4 months.[61]

Wildlife

[edit]
Main article: Wildlife of Laos

Administrative divisions

[edit]
Main article: Administrative divisions of Laos

Laos is divided into 17 provinces (khoueng) and one prefecture (kampheng nakhon), which includes the capital city Vientiane (Nakhon Louang Viangchan).[62] A province, Xaisomboun province, was established on 13 December 2013.[63] Provinces are divided into districts (muang) and then villages (ban). An "urban" village is essentially a town.[56]

No. Subdivisions Capital Area (km2) Population
1 Attapeu Attapeu (Samakkhixay district) 10,320 114,300
2 Bokeo Houayxay (Houayxay district) 6,196 149,700
3 Bolikhamsai Paksan (Paksane District) 14,863 214,900
4 Champasak Pakse (Pakse District) 15,415 575,600
5 Houaphanh Xam Neua (Xamneua District) 16,500 322,200
6 Khammouane Thakhek (Thakhek District) 16,315 358,800
7 Luang Namtha Luang Namtha (Namtha District) 9,325 150,100
8 Luang Prabang Luang Prabang (Luang Prabang district) 16,875 408,800
9 Oudomxay Muang Xay (Xay District) 15,370 275,300
10 Phongsaly Phongsali (Phongsaly District) 16,270 199,900
11 Sainyabuli Sayabouly (Xayabury District) 16,389 382,200
12 Salavan Salavan (Salavan District) 10,691 336,600
13 Savannakhet Savannakhet (Khanthabouly District) 21,774 721,500
14 Sekong Sekong (Lamarm District) 7,665 83,600
15 Vientiane Prefecture Vientiane (Chanthabouly district) 3,920 1,001,477
16 Vientiane Province Phonhong (Phonhong District) 15,927 373,700
17 Xiengkhouang Phonsavan (Pek District) 15,880 229,521
18 Xaisomboun Anouvong (Anouvong district) 8,300 82,000
An updated map of Lao provinces (from 2014)

Politics

[edit]
Main articles: Politics of Laos and Foreign relations of Laos
Thongloun Sisoulith
Thongloun Sisoulith,
general secretary of the LPRP and president since 2021
Sonexay Siphandone
Sonexay Siphandone,
prime minister since 2022

The Lao PDR is one of the world's socialist states openly endorsing communism. The only legal political party is the Lao People's Revolutionary Party (LPRP). With the one-party state status of Laos, the General Secretary (party leader) holds ultimate power and authority over state and government and serves as the supreme leader.[45] As of 22 March 2021, the head of state is President Thongloun Sisoulith. He has been General Secretary of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party, a position making him the de facto leader of Laos, since January 2021.[64][65]

Laos's first French-written and monarchical constitution was promulgated on 11 May 1947, and declared Laos an independent state within the French Union. The revised constitution of 11 May 1957 omitted reference to the French Union, while educational, health and technical ties with the former colonial power persisted. The 1957 document was abrogated in December 1975, when a communist people's republic was proclaimed. A constitution was adopted in 1991 and enshrined a "leading role" for the LPRP.[45]

Flag of the ruling Lao People's Revolutionary Party

Foreign relations

[edit]
Main article: Foreign relations of Laos
Prime Minister Thongloun Sisoulith with Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi and ASEAN heads of state in New Delhi on 25 January 2018

The foreign relations of Laos after the takeover by the Pathet Lao in December 1975 were characterised by a hostile posture toward the West, with the government of the Lao PDR aligning itself with the Soviet Bloc, maintaining ties with the Soviet Union[66] and depending on the Soviets for most of its foreign assistance.[67]

Laos's emergence from international isolation has been marked through expanded relations with other countries including Russia, China, Thailand, Australia, Germany, Italy, Japan and Switzerland.[68] Trade relations with the United States were normalised in November 2004 through Congress approved legislation.[69] Laos was admitted into the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in July 1997 and acceded to the World Trade Organization in 2016.[70] In 2005, it attended the inaugural East Asia Summit.[71]

Hmong conflict

[edit]

Some Hmong groups fought as CIA-backed units on the royalist side in the Laotian Civil War. After the Pathet Lao took over the country in 1975, the conflict continued in isolated pockets. In 1977, a communist newspaper promised the party would hunt down the "American collaborators" and their families "to the last root".[72] As many as 200,000 Hmong went into exile in Thailand, with some ending up in the US. Other Hmong fighters hid out in mountains in Xiangkhouang Province for years, with a remnant emerging from the jungle in 2003.[72]

In 1989, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), with the support of the US government, instituted the Comprehensive Plan of Action, a programme to stem the tide of Indochinese refugees from Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia. Under the plan, refugee status was evaluated through a screening process. Recognised asylum seekers were given resettlement opportunities, while the remaining refugees were to be repatriated under guarantee of safety. After talks with the UNHCR and the Thai government, Laos agreed to repatriate the 60,000 Lao refugees living in Thailand, including several thousand Hmong people. Some of the Lao refugees were willing to return voluntarily.[73] Pressure to resettle the refugees grew as the Thai government worked to close its remaining refugee camps. While some Hmong people returned to Laos voluntarily, with development assistance from UNHCR, allegations of forced repatriation surfaced.[74][75] Of those Hmong who did return to Laos, some escaped back to Thailand, describing discrimination and brutal treatment at the hands of Lao authorities.[76]

Hmong girls in Laos, 1973

In 1993, Vue Mai, a former Hmong soldier and leader of the largest Hmong refugee camp in Thailand, who had been recruited by the US Embassy in Bangkok to return to Laos as proof of the repatriation programme's success, disappeared in Vientiane. According to the US Committee for Refugees, he was arrested by Lao security forces and was never seen again.[77] Following the Vue Mai incident, debate over the Hmong's planned repatriation to Laos intensified, including in the United States, where it drew opposition from American conservatives and some human rights advocates. In a 23 October 1995 National Review article, Michael Johns labelled the Hmong's repatriation a Clinton administration "betrayal", describing the Hmong as a people "who have spilled their blood in defence of American geopolitical interests".[78]

In their opposition of the repatriation plans, Democratic and Republican Members of Congress challenged the Clinton administration's position that the government of Laos was not systematically violating Hmong human rights. US Representative Steve Gunderson, for instance, told a Hmong gathering: "I do not enjoy standing up and saying to my government that you are not telling the truth, but if that is necessary to defend truth and justice, I will do that."[78]

While some accusations of forced repatriation were denied,[79] thousands of Hmong people refused to return to Laos. In 1996 as the deadline for the closure of Thai refugee camps approached, and under mounting political pressure, the United States agreed to resettle Hmong refugees who passed a screening process.[80] Around 5,000 Hmong people who were not resettled at the time of the camp closures sought asylum at Wat Tham Krabok, a Buddhist monastery in central Thailand where more than 10,000 Hmong refugees had already been living. The Thai government attempted to repatriate these refugees, and the Wat Tham Krabok Hmong refused to leave and the Lao government refused to accept them, claiming they were involved in the illegal drug trade and were of non-Lao origin.[81] Following threats of forcible removal by the Thai government, the United States, in a victory for the Hmong, agreed to accept 15,000 of the refugees in 2003.[82] Several thousand Hmong people, fearing forced repatriation to Laos if they were not accepted for resettlement in the United States, fled the camp to live elsewhere within Thailand where a sizeable Hmong population has been present since the 19th century.[83] In 2004 and 2005, thousands of Hmong fled from the jungles of Laos to a temporary refugee camp in the Thai province of Phetchabun.[84]

Lending further support to earlier claims that the government of Laos was persecuting the Hmong, filmmaker Rebecca Sommer documented first-hand accounts in her documentary, Hunted Like Animals,[85] and in a comprehensive report that includes summaries of refugee claims, which was submitted to the UN in May 2006.[86]

The European Union,[87] UNHCHR, and international groups have since spoken out about the forced repatriation.[87][88][89][90] The Thai foreign ministry has said that it will halt deportation of Hmong refugees held in Detention Centres in Nong Khai, while talks are underway to resettle them in Australia, Canada, the Netherlands and the United States.[91] Plans to resettle additional Hmong refugees in the United States were stalled by provisions of President George W. Bush's Patriot Act and Real ID Act, under which Hmong veterans of the Secret War, who fought on the side of the United States, are classified as terrorists because of their historical involvement in armed conflict.[92]

Human rights

[edit]
Main article: Human rights in Laos

In The Economist's Democracy Index 2016 Laos was classified as an "authoritarian regime", ranking lowest of the 9 ASEAN nations included in the study.[93][94] Civil society advocates, human rights defenders, political and religious dissidents, and Hmong refugees have disappeared at the hands of Lao military and security forces.[95]

Ostensibly, the Constitution of Laos that was promulgated in 1991 and amended in 2003 contains safeguards for human rights. For example, Article 8 makes it clear that Laos is a multinational state and is committed to equality between ethnic groups. The constitution contains provisions for gender equality, freedom of religion, freedom of speech, and freedom of press and assembly.[96] On 25 September 2009, Laos ratified the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 9 years after signing the treaty. The stated policy objectives of the Lao government and international donors remain focused upon achieving sustainable economic growth and poverty reduction.[97][98]

An organisation raised concerns in relation to freedom of expression, prison conditions, restrictions on freedom of religions, protection of refugees and asylum-seekers, and the death penalty.[99] Laos has been cited as an origin country for human trafficking.[100] A number of citizens, primarily women and girls from ethnic groups and foreigners, have been victims of sex trafficking in Laos.[101][102][103]

Economy

[edit]
Main article: Economy of Laos
GDP per capita development in Laos

The Lao economy depends on investment and trade with its neighbours, Thailand, Vietnam, and, especially in the north, China. Pakxe has experienced growth based on cross-border trade with Thailand and Vietnam. In 2009, the Obama administration in the US declared Laos was no longer a Marxist–Leninist state and lifted bans on Laotian companies receiving financing from the US Export-Import Bank.[104][105]

In 2016, China was the biggest foreign investor in the Laotian economy, having invested US$5.395 billion since 1989, according to the Laos Ministry of Planning and Investment's 1989–2014 report. Thailand (invested US$4.489 billion) and Vietnam (invested US$3.108 billion) are the second and third largest investors respectively.[106]

Subsistence agriculture accounts for half of the GDP and provides 80% of employment. 4% of the country is arable land and 0.3% used as permanent crop land,[107] the lowest percentage in the Greater Mekong Subregion.[108] The irrigated areas account for 28% of the total area under cultivation which, in turn, represents 12% of all of the agricultural land in 2012.[109] Rice dominates agriculture, with about 80% of the arable land area used for growing rice.[110] Approximately 77% of Lao farm households are self-sufficient in rice.[111] Laos may have the greatest number of rice varieties in the Greater Mekong Subregion. The Lao government has been working with the International Rice Research Institute of the Philippines to collect seed samples of each of the thousands of rice varieties found in Laos.[112]

Laos imports petroleum and gas. Metallurgy is an industry, and the government hopes to attract foreign investment to develop the deposits of coal, gold, bauxite, tin, copper, and other metals. The mining industry of Laos has received attention with foreign direct investments. More than 540 mineral deposits of gold, copper, zinc, lead and other minerals have been identified, explored and mined.[113] The country's water resources and mountainous terrain enable it to produce and export quantities of hydroelectric energy.[114] Of the potential capacity of approximately 18,000 megawatts, around 8,000 megawatts have been committed for export to Thailand and Vietnam.[115] As of 2021, Laos continues to rely on fossil fuels, coal in particular, in domestic electricity production.[116]

In 2018, the country ranked 139th on the Human Development Index (HDI), indicating medium development.[117] According to the Global Hunger Index (2018), Laos ranks as the 36th hungriest nation in the world out of the list of the 52 nations with the worst hunger situation(s).[118] In 2019, the UN Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights conducted an official visit to Laos and found that the country's top-down approach to economic growth and poverty alleviation "is all too often counterproductive, leading to impoverishment and jeopardising the rights of the poor and marginalised."[119]

A product, Beerlao, was exported in 2017 to more than 20 countries worldwide. It is produced by the Lao Brewery Company.[120]

Tourism

[edit]
Main article: Tourism in Laos
Near the sanctuary on the upper level of Vat Phou, looking back towards the Mekong River

The tourism sector has grown from 80,000 international visitors in 1990, to 1.876 million in 2010,[121] when tourism had been expected to rise to US$1.5857 billion by 2020. In 2010, 1 in every 11 jobs was in the tourism sector. Export earnings from international visitors and tourism goods are expected to generate 16% of total exports or US$270.3 million in 2010, growing in nominal terms to US$484.2 million (12.5% of the total) in 2020.[122] The European Council on Trade and Tourism awarded the country the "World Best Tourist Destination" designation for 2013 for architecture and history.[123]

The Lao National Tourism Administration, related government agencies and the private sector are working together to realise the vision put forth in the country's National Ecotourism Strategy and Action Plan. This includes decreasing the environmental and cultural impact of tourism; increasing awareness in the importance of ethnic groups and biological diversity; providing a source of income to conserve, sustain and manage the Lao protected area network and cultural heritage sites; and emphasizing the need for tourism zoning and management plans for sites that will be developed as ecotourism destinations.[124]

Transportation

[edit]
Main articles: Transport in Laos and Telecommunications in Laos
Rivers are a means of transport in Laos.

The mountainous geography of Laos had impeded Laos's ground transportation development throughout the 20th century. Its first railway line, a 3-km long metre-gauge railway that connects southern Vientiane to Thailand, opened in 2009. In December 2021, the 414-km long Boten–Vientiane railway that runs from the capital Vientiane to Boten at the northern border with China and was built as part of China's Belt and Road Initiative was opened.[125]

There is external and internal telecommunication. 93% of households have a telephone, either fixed line or mobile.[126]: 8  Electricity is available to 93% of the population.[126]: 8 

Water supply

[edit]
Main article: Water supply and sanitation in Laos

According to the World Bank data conducted in 2014, Laos has met the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) targets on water and sanitation regarding the UNICEF/WHO Joint Monitoring Programme. As of 2018, there are approximately 1.9 million of Lao's population who could not access an improved water supply and 2.4 million people without access to improved sanitation.[127]

Laos has made progress increasing access to sanitation.[128] In 1990 8% of the rural population had access to improved sanitation.[128] Access rose from 10% in 1995 to 38% in 2008. Between 1995 and 2008 approximately 1,232,900 more people had access to improved sanitation in rural areas.[128] The authorities in Laos have developed an innovative regulatory framework for public–private partnership contracts signed with enterprises, in parallel with more conventional regulation of state-owned water enterprises.[129]

Demographics

[edit]
Main article: Demographics of Laos

Ethnicity

[edit]

The people of Laos are categorised by their distribution by elevation (lowlands, midlands and upper high lands), as this somewhat correlates with ethnic groupings. More than half of the nation's population is ethnic Lao—the principal lowland inhabitants.[130] The Lao belong to the Tai linguistic group[131] who began migrating south from China in the first millennium CE.[132] 10% belong to other "lowland" groups, which together with the Lao people make up the Lao Loum (lowland people).[130]

In the central and southern mountains, Mon-Khmer-speaking groups, known as Lao Theung or mid-slope Laotians, predominate. Other terms are Khmu, Khamu (Kammu) or Kha as the Lao Loum refer to them to indicate their Austroasiatic language affiliation. The latter is considered pejorative, meaning 'slave'. They were the indigenous inhabitants of northern Laos. Some Vietnamese, Laotian Chinese[133] and Thai minorities remain, particularly in the towns, and some left after independence in the 1940s, some of whom relocated either to Vietnam, Hong Kong, or to France. Lao Theung constitute about 30% of the population.[134]

Hill people and minority cultures of Laos such as the Hmong, Yao (Mien) (Hmong-Mien), Dao, Shan, and Tibeto-Burman speaking peoples have lived in isolated regions of Laos for years. Mountain/hill tribes of mixed ethno/cultural-linguistic heritage are found in northern Laos, which include the Lua and Khmu people who are indigenous to Laos. Collectively, they are known as Lao Soung or highland Laotians. Lao Soung account for about 10% of the population.[44]

Languages

[edit]

The official language is Lao, a language of the Tai-Kadai language family. More than half of the population speaks Lao natively. The remainder, particularly in rural areas, speak ethnic minority languages. The Lao alphabet, which evolved sometime between the 13th and 14th centuries, was derived from the Khmer script.[135] Languages like Khmu (Austroasiatic) and Hmong (Hmong-Mien) are spoken by minorities, particularly in the midland and highland areas. A number of Laotian sign languages are used in areas with higher rates of congenital deafness.[44]

French is used in government and commerce, and Laos is a member of the French-speaking organisation of La Francophonie. The organisation estimated in 2010 that there were 173,800 French speakers in Laos.[136]

English, the language of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), has become increasingly studied in years.[137]

Religion

[edit]
Main article: Religion in Laos
Wat Nong Sikhounmuang pagoda in Luang Prabang

66% of Laotians were Theravada Buddhist, 1.5% Christian, 0.1% Muslim, 0.1% Jewish, and 32.3% were other or traditional (mostly practitioners of Satsana Phi) in 2010.[4][138]

Health

[edit]
Main article: Health in Laos
Mahosot Hospital in Vientiane

Male life expectancy at birth was at 62.6 years and female life expectancy was at 66.7 years in 2017.[138] Healthy life expectancy was 54 years in 2007.[139] Government expenditure on health is about 4% of GDP,[139] about US$18 (PPP) in 2006.[139]

Education

[edit]
Main article: Education in Laos
See also: National Library of Laos
National University of Laos in Vientiane

The adult literacy rate for women in 2017 was 62.9%; for adult men, 78.1%.[126]: 39–40 

In 2004 the net primary enrollment rate was 84%.[139] Laos was ranked 111st in the Global Innovation Index in 2024.[140]

Culture

[edit]
Main article: Culture of Laos
See also: Lao art, Lao cuisine, Dance and theatre of Laos, Laotian society, List of festivals in Laos, and Music of Laos
An example of Lao cuisine
Lao women wearing sinhs
Lao dancers during the New Year celebration

Sticky rice is a staple food. There are traditions and rituals associated with rice production in environments and among ethnic groups. For example, Khammu farmers in Luang Prabang plant the rice variety khao kam in quantities near the farm house in memory of dead parents, or at the edge of the rice field to indicate that parents are still alive.[141]

Cinema

[edit]
Main article: Cinema of Laos

The first feature-length film made after the monarchy was abolished is Gun Voice from the Plain of Jars directed by Somchith Pholsena in 1983 and its release was prevented by a censorship board.[142] A commercial feature-length film was Sabaidee Luang Prabang, made in 2008.[143] The 2017 documentary feature film Blood Road was predominantly shot and produced in Laos with assistance from the Lao government. It was recognised with a News and Documentary Emmy Award in 2018.[144]

Australian filmmaker Kim Mordount's first feature film was made in Laos and features a Laotian cast speaking their native language. Entitled The Rocket, the film appeared at the 2013 Melbourne International Film Festival and won 3 awards at the Berlin International Film Festival.[145] Examples of Lao feature films that have received international recognition include Lao New Wave Cinema's At the Horizon, directed by Anysay Keola, which was screened at the OzAsia Film Festival,[146] and Lao Art Media's Chanthaly (Lao: ຈັນທະລີ), directed by Mattie Do, which was screened at the 2013 Fantastic Fest.[147][148] In September 2017, Laos submitted Dearest Sister (Lao: ນ້ອງຮັກ), Mattie Do's second feature film, to the 90th Academy Awards (or the Oscars) for consideration for Best Foreign Language Film, marking the country's first submission for the Oscars.[149]

As of 2018, Laos has 3 theatres dedicated to showing films.[150]

Festivals

[edit]

There are some public holidays, festivities and ceremonies in Laos.

  • Hmong New Year (Nopejao)
  • Bun Pha Wet
  • Magha Puja
  • Chinese New Year
  • Boun Khoun Khao
  • Boun Pimai
  • Boun Bang Fai (Rocket festival)
  • Visakha Puja
  • Pi Mai/Songkran (Lao New Year)
  • Khao Phansaa
  • Haw Khao Padap Din
  • Awk Phansaa
  • Bun Nam
  • Lao National Day (2 December)[151][152]

Media

[edit]

The Lao government controls media channels to prevent critique of its actions.[153] Lao citizens who have criticised the government have been subjected to enforced disappearances, arrests and torture.[154][155]

Polygamy

[edit]

Polygamy is officially a crime in Laos. The constitution and Family Code bar the legal recognition of polygamous marriages, stipulating that monogamy is the principal form of marriage in the country.[156] Polygamy is customary among some Hmong people.[157] As of 2017, 3.5% of women and 2.1% of men between the ages of 15–49 were in a polygamous union.[126]: 19 

Sport

[edit]
New Laos National Stadium in Vientiane

The martial art of muay Lao, the national sport,[158] is a form of kickboxing similar to Thailand's muay Thai, Burmese Lethwei and Cambodian Pradal Serey.[159]

See also

[edit]

Explanatory notes

[edit]
  1. ^ Including over 100 smaller ethnic groups
  2. ^ "The State respects and protects all lawful activities of Buddhists and of followers of other religions, [and] mobilises and encourages Buddhist monks and novices as well as the priests of other religions to participate in activities that are beneficial to the country and people."[3]
  3. ^ /laʊs/ ⓘ, /ˈlɑːoʊs, ˈlɑːɒs, ˈleɪɒs/ LOWSS, LAH-ohss, LAH-oss, LAY-oss[9][10][11]
  4. ^ Lao: ສາທາລະນະລັດ ປະຊາທິປະໄຕ ປະຊາຊົນລາວ (ສປປ ລາວ)

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "The Languages spoken in Laos". Studycountry. Archived from the original on 25 February 2021. Retrieved 16 September 2018.
  2. ^ "Results of Population and Housing Census 2015" (PDF). Lao Statistics Bureau. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 1 May 2020.
  3. ^ "Lao People's Democratic Republic's Constitution of 1991 with Amendments through 2003" (PDF). constituteproject.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 December 2017. Retrieved 29 October 2017. Article 9: The State respects and protects all lawful activities of Buddhists and of followers of other religions, [and] mobilises and encourages Buddhist monks and novices as well as the priests of other religions to participate in activities that are beneficial to the country and people.
  4. ^ a b "Global Religious Landscape; Table: Religious Composition by Country" (PDF). Pew Research. 2010. p. 47. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 March 2018. Retrieved 16 April 2020.
  5. ^ a b "Laos". The World Factbook (2024 ed.). Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 24 September 2022. (Archived 2022 edition.)
  6. ^ a b c d "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2024 Edition. (Laos)". International Monetary Fund. 20 October 2024. Retrieved 3 November 2024.
  7. ^ "Gini Index". World Bank. Archived from the original on 9 February 2015. Retrieved 2 March 2011.
  8. ^ "Human Development Report 2023/24". United Nations Development Programme. 13 March 2024. Archived from the original on 19 March 2024. Retrieved 22 March 2023.
  9. ^ "Laos". Archived from the original on 25 February 2021. Retrieved 8 September 2016 – via The Free Dictionary.
  10. ^ "Laos - definition of Laos in English from the Oxford dictionary". web.archive.org. 9 November 2015.
  11. ^ Oxford Dictionaries (American English)
  12. ^ "About Laos: Geography". Asia Pacific Parliamentary Forum. Government of Laos. Archived from the original on 16 April 2016.
  13. ^ a b Stuart-Fox, Martin (1998). The Lao Kingdom of Lan Xang: Rise and Decline. White Lotus Press. p. 49. ISBN 974-8434-33-8.
  14. ^ Janssen, Peter. "China train project runs roughshod over Laos". Asia Times. Archived from the original on 13 October 2021. Retrieved 19 January 2019.
  15. ^ "Laos approves Xayaburi 'mega' dam on Mekong". BBC News. 5 November 2012. Archived from the original on 1 July 2019. Retrieved 21 July 2018.
  16. ^ "Lao PDR [Overview]". World Bank. March 2018. Archived from the original on 12 July 2018. Retrieved 26 July 2018.
  17. ^ "Laos Securities Exchange to start trading". Financial Times. 10 January 2011. Archived from the original on 25 October 2020. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
  18. ^ "Lao People's Democratic Republic and the WTO". World Trade Organization. Archived from the original on 12 August 2014. Retrieved 9 August 2014.
  19. ^ a b Rodgers, Greg. "How to Say "Laos"". TripSavvy. Archived from the original on 3 March 2021. Retrieved 18 March 2020.
  20. ^ Ragusa, Nina (4 April 2019). "10 Things You Need to Know Before Visiting Laos". Fodors. Archived from the original on 23 March 2021. Retrieved 18 March 2020.
  21. ^ "Meaning of Laos in English". Cambridge Dictionary. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 7 October 2019.
  22. ^ "Laos – definition and synonyms". Macmillan Dictionary. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 7 October 2019.
  23. ^ "Definition of Laos by Merriam-Webster". Merriam-Webster. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 27 March 2020.
  24. ^ Demeter, F; et al. (2012). "Anatomically modern human in Southeast Asia (Laos) by 46 ka". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 109 (36): 14375–14380. Bibcode:2012PNAS..10914375D. doi:10.1073/pnas.1208104109. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 3437904. PMID 22908291.
  25. ^ White, J.C.; Lewis, H.; Bouasisengpaseuth, B.; Marwick, B.; Arrell, K (2009). "Archaeological Investigations in northern Laos: New contributions to Southeast Asian prehistory". Antiquity. 83 (319). Archived from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 18 September 2016.
  26. ^ Marwick, Ben; Bouasisengpaseuth, Bounheung (2017). "History and Practice of Archaeology in Laos". In Habu, Junko; Lape, Peter; Olsen, John (eds.). Handbook of East and Southeast Asian Archaeology. Springer. Archived from the original on 6 July 2019. Retrieved 20 January 2018.
  27. ^ Pittayaporn, Pittayawat (2014). Layers of Chinese Loanwords in Proto-Southwestern Tai as Evidence for the Dating of the Spread of Southwestern Tai Archived 27 June 2015 at the Wayback Machine. MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities, Special Issue No 20: 47–64.
  28. ^ Coedès, George (1968). Walter F. Vella (ed.). The Indianized States of Southeast Asia. trans. Susan Brown Cowing. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-0368-1.
  29. ^ "Fa Ngum". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 23 December 2019.
  30. ^ "Fa Ngum". History.com. Archived from the original on 8 March 2010. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
  31. ^ Sanda Simms, ch. 3, "Through Chaos to a New Order", in The Kingdoms of Laos (London: Taylor & Francis, 2013). ISBN 9781136863370
  32. ^ Sanda Simms, ch. 6, "Seventy Years of Anarchy", in The Kingdoms of Laos (London: Taylor & Francis, 2013). ISBN 9781136863370; see also P.C. Sinha, ed., Encyclopaedia of South East and Far East Asia, vol. 3 (Anmol, 2006).
  33. ^ Askew, Marc. (2010) [2007]. Vientiane : transformations of a Lao landscape. Logan, William Stewart, 1942–, Long, Colin, 1966–. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-59662-6. OCLC 68416667.
  34. ^ "Let's hope Laos hangs on to its identity". Asianewsnet.net. Archived from the original on 26 November 2010. Retrieved 23 January 2011.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  35. ^ Showalter, Dennis, ed. (2013). Imperial Wars 1815–1914. Encyclopedia of Warfare Series. London: Amber Books. ISBN 978-1-78274-125-1. OCLC 1152285624.
  36. ^ "Slavery in Nineteenth-Century Northern Thailand: Archival Anecdotes and Village Voices". The Kyoto Review of Southeast Asia
  37. ^ Librios Semantic Environment (11 August 2006). "Laos: Laos under the French". Culturalprofiles.net. Archived from the original on 18 July 2007. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
  38. ^ Carine Hahn, Le Laos, Karthala, 1999, pp. 69–72
  39. ^ "History of Laos". Lonely Planet. 9 August 1960. Archived from the original on 25 February 2021. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
  40. ^ Ivarsson, Søren (2008). Creating Laos: The Making of a Lao Space Between Indochina and Siam, 1860–1945 Archived 10 April 2023 at the Wayback Machine. NIAS Press, p. 102. ISBN 978-8-776-94023-2.
  41. ^ a b c d Stuart-Fox, Martin (1997). A History of Laos Archived 5 April 2023 at the Wayback Machine. Cambridge University Press, p. 51. ISBN 978-0-521-59746-3.
  42. ^ Paul Lévy, Histoire du Laos, PUF, 1974.
  43. ^ a b Savada, Andrea Matles (editor) (1994). "Events in 1945". A Country Study: Laos Archived 21 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine. Federal Research Division, Library of Congress.
  44. ^ a b c d e f "Laos – Overview". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
  45. ^ a b c d e f g h "Laos profile". 9 January 2018. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 26 April 2019.
  46. ^ Kiernan, Ben; Owen, Taylor (26 April 2015). "Making More Enemies than We Kill? Calculating U.S. Bomb Tonnages Dropped on Laos and Cambodia, and Weighing Their Implications". The Asia-Pacific Journal. Archived from the original on 1 March 2017. Retrieved 18 September 2016.
  47. ^ Wright, Rebecca (6 September 2016). "'My friends were afraid of me': What 80 million unexploded US bombs did to Laos". CNN. Archived from the original on 17 January 2019. Retrieved 18 September 2016.
  48. ^ "Disarmament". The United Nations Office at Geneva. United Nations. November 2011. Archived from the original on 21 September 2013. Retrieved 20 September 2013.
  49. ^ Obermeyer, Ziad; Murray, Christopher J. L.; Gakidou, Emmanuela (2008). "Fifty years of violent war deaths from Vietnam to Bosnia: analysis of data from the world health survey programme". BMJ. 336 (7659): 1482–1486. doi:10.1136/bmj.a137. PMC 2440905. PMID 18566045. See Table 3.
  50. ^ Stuart-Fox, Martin (1980). LAOS: The Vietnamese Connection Archived 13 October 2021 at the Wayback Machine. In Suryadinata, L (Ed.), Southeast Asian Affairs (1980). Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Stuides, pg. 191.
  51. ^ Kingsbury, Damien (2016). Politics in Contemporary Southeast Asia: Authority, Democracy and Political Change Archived 10 April 2023 at the Wayback Machine. Taylor & Francis;ISBN 978-1-317-49628-1, pg. 50.
  52. ^ Savada, Andrea M. (1995). Laos: a country study Archived 19 April 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, p. 271. ISBN 0-8444-0832-8
  53. ^ Prayaga, M. (2005). Renovation in Vietnam since 1988 a study in political, economic and social change Archived 19 April 2018 at the Wayback Machine (PhD thesis). Sri Venkateswara University. Chapter IV: The Metamorphosed Foreign Relations, pg. 154.
  54. ^ Laos (04/09) Archived 24 October 2020 at the Wayback Machine. U.S. Department of State.[failed verification]
  55. ^ "The Completed China-Laos Railway". ASEAN Business News. 21 December 2021. Archived from the original on 12 May 2022. Retrieved 18 May 2022.
  56. ^ a b "Nsc Lao Pdr". Nsc.gov.la. Archived from the original on 23 January 2012.
  57. ^ Grantham, H. S.; et al. (2020). "Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity". Nature Communications. 11 (1): 5978. Bibcode:2020NatCo..11.5978G. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 7723057. PMID 33293507.
  58. ^ "Laos travel guides". Indochinatrek.com. Archived from the original on 10 November 2010. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
  59. ^ "Mekong Divides Different Worlds In 'Golden Triangle'". NPR.org. Archived from the original on 4 February 2021. Retrieved 1 February 2019.
  60. ^ "Opium Poppy Cultivation in South East Asia" (PDF). UNODC. October 2007. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 28 January 2020.
  61. ^ a b "Laos – Climate". Countrystudies.us. Archived from the original on 20 May 2011. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
  62. ^ "East Asia/Southeast Asia ::". The World Factbook. Archived from the original on 7 March 2021. Retrieved 23 May 2019.
  63. ^ "ABOUT XAYSOMBOUN". tourismlaos.org. Archived from the original on 7 May 2019. Retrieved 23 May 2019.
  64. ^ ul Khaliq, Riyaz (22 March 2021). "Laos parliament elects new president". Anadolu Agency. Archived from the original on 24 March 2021. Retrieved 23 March 2021.
  65. ^ Kishimoto, Marimi (15 January 2021). "Laos promotes PM Thongloun as leader of communist party". Nikkei Asia. Archived from the original on 1 July 2021. Retrieved 4 March 2021.
  66. ^ "Laos economy set for impressive recovery". GE63. 11 April 2023. Archived from the original on 11 April 2023. Retrieved 11 April 2023.
  67. ^ "Laos – Foreign Aid". Archived from the original on 30 April 2017. Retrieved 26 October 2020.
  68. ^ "OEC – Laos (LAO) Exports, Imports, and Trade Partners". oec.world. Archived from the original on 13 April 2021. Retrieved 30 September 2019.
  69. ^ Lum, Thomas (5 February 2007). "Laos: Background and U.S. Relations" (PDF). CRS Report for Congress. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 23 May 2019.
  70. ^ "Laos – Trade Agreements". export.gov. Archived from the original on 10 April 2023. Retrieved 23 May 2019.
  71. ^ "Q+A – What is the East Asia Summit all about?". Reuters. 24 October 2009. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 30 September 2019.
  72. ^ a b "No way out". The Times. London. 30 July 2006. Archived from the original on 12 November 2022. Retrieved 14 November 2022.
  73. ^ "Laos agrees to voluntary repatriation of refugees in Thailand", U.P.I., 5 June 1991.
  74. ^ "Lao Refugees Return Home Under European Union Repatriation Program". Associated Press Worldstream. 22 November 1994.
  75. ^ Karen J. (26 April 1994). "House Panel Hears Concerns About Hmong". States News Service.
  76. ^ Hamilton-Merritt, Jane (1993). Tragic Mountains. Indiana University Press. pp. xix–xxi. ISBN 0253207568.
  77. ^ "Hmong Leader's Vanishing In Laos Reverberates in U.S." Archived from the original on 7 October 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2016.
  78. ^ a b Johns, Michael (23 October 1995). "Acts of Betrayal: Persecution of Hmong". National Review. Archived from the original on 6 February 2010. Retrieved 9 December 2013.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  79. ^ "Reports on results of investigations of allegations concerning the welfare of Hmong refugees and asylum seekers in Thailand and Laos". United States Embassy (Thailand). Refugee and Migration Affairs Unit. 1992. Retrieved 27 July 2007.
  80. ^ Gunderson, Steve (18 May 1996). "State Department Outlines Resettlement Guidelines for Hmong Refugees". Congressional Press Releases.
  81. ^ "Laos refuses to take back Thai-based Hmong refugees". Deutsche Presse-Agentur. 20 August 1998.
  82. ^ "Refugee Admissions Program for East Asia". Bureau of Population, Refugees, and Migration. 16 January 2004. Archived from the original on 14 June 2021. Retrieved 17 January 2009.
  83. ^ "History of the Hmong Resettlement Task Force". Hmong Resettlement Task Force. 7 March 2012. Archived from the original on 21 October 2008.
  84. ^ "Hmong refugees pleading to stay". BBC News. 28 July 2005. Archived from the original on 10 June 2021. Retrieved 4 May 2010.
  85. ^ "Hunted like animals". Rebecca Sommer Film Clips. Archived from the original on 5 January 2011.
  86. ^ Sommer, Rebecca (May 2006). "Report on the situation in the Xaysomboun Special Zone and 1100 Hmong-Lao refugees who escaped to Petchabun, Thailand during 2004–2005" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 April 2012.
  87. ^ a b "Thailand: EU Presidency Declaration on the situation of Hmong refugees". EU@UN. 1 February 2007. Archived from the original on 12 March 2010. Retrieved 9 December 2013.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  88. ^ "Hmong refugees facing removal from Thailand". The Wire. March 2007. Archived from the original on 13 October 2007.
  89. ^ "Deportation of Hmong Lao refugees stopped in last minute". Gesellschaft für bedrohte Völker. 30 January 2007. Archived from the original on 24 February 2012.
  90. ^ "Hmong: UNHCR Protests Refugee Deportation". Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization. 5 February 2007. Archived from the original on 25 February 2021.
  91. ^ "Thailand halts Hmong repatriation". BBC News. 30 January 2007. Archived from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 4 May 2010.
  92. ^ Xiong, T (2008). "Bush Signs Law Excluding Hmong From Patriot Act". Asianweek.
  93. ^ Cigaral, Ian Nicolas (11 November 2017). "In charts: How the Philippines fares in Southeast Asia". The Philippine Star. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 12 November 2017.
  94. ^ "Democracy Index 2016". The Economist Intelligence Unit. 2017. Archived from the original on 24 October 2019. Retrieved 12 November 2017.
  95. ^ Smith, Philip, Washington, D.C. (12 December 2014) CPPA – Center for Public Policy Analysis Archived 6 April 2008 at the Wayback Machine
  96. ^ "2003 Laos Constitution" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 February 2021. Retrieved 25 November 2020.
  97. ^ "Lao PDR". World Bank. 14 July 2011. Archived from the original on 20 February 2020. Retrieved 24 July 2011.
  98. ^ "Constitution of the Lao PDR" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 February 2021. Retrieved 25 November 2020.
  99. ^ Amnesty International (May 2010). "Submission to the UN Universal Periodic Review: Eighth session of the UPR Working Group of the Human Rights Council". Archived from the original on 30 November 2018. Retrieved 20 November 2018.
  100. ^ "LAO PDR UN ACT". UN ACT. Archived from the original on 29 July 2020. Retrieved 28 March 2020.
  101. ^ "Two teenagers rescued from forced prostitution in Laos". Thanh Nien News. 4 November 2014. Archived from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 28 March 2020.
  102. ^ "Trafficking Racket Smashed". Radio Free Asia. 14 October 2010. Archived from the original on 4 April 2021. Retrieved 28 March 2020.
  103. ^ "Chinese marriage proposals become prostitution nightmares for some Lao girls". Radio Free Asia. 13 February 2017. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 28 March 2020.
  104. ^ Thomas Fuller (17 September 2009). "Communism and Capitalism Are Mixing in Laos". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
  105. ^ "USA: Obama promotes Laos e Cambogia". La Gazzetta del Mezzogiorno. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 1 June 2019.
  106. ^ Lowe, Sandra (10 December 2016). "Out of obscurity". Asia Times. Archived from the original on 13 October 2021. Retrieved 14 December 2016.
  107. ^ Field Listing – Land use Archived 26 March 2014 at the Wayback Machine, CIA World Factbook.
  108. ^ About Greater Mekong Subregion at Asian Development Bank
  109. ^ Kyophilavong, Phouphet, et al. "Effects of AFTA on poverty: Evidence from Laos." Journal of Economic Integration (2016): 353–376.
  110. ^ Rice: The Fabric of Life in Laos. Lao_IRRI Project
  111. ^ Barclay, Adam and Shrestha, Samjhana (April–June 2006) "Genuinely Lao", Rice Today.
  112. ^ "A Race Against Time" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 June 2007. Retrieved 27 June 2010.
  113. ^ Kyophilvong, Phouphet. "Mining Sector in Laos" (PDF). Institute of Developing Economies. p. 69. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 January 2013. Retrieved 29 November 2015.
  114. ^ Vakulchuk, R., Chan, H.Y., Kresnawan, M.R., Merdekawati, M., Overland, I., Sagbakken, H.F., Suryadi, B., Utama, N.A. and Yurnaidi, Z., 2020. Lao PDR: How to Attract More Investment in Small-Scale Renewable Energy? ASEAN Centre for Energy (ACE) Policy Brief Series, No 7. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/341793965
  115. ^ "Preparing the Cumulative Impact Assessment for the Nam Ngum 3 Hydropower Project: Financed by the Japan Special Fund" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 May 2011. Retrieved 27 June 2010.
  116. ^ Overland, Indra; Sagbakken, Haakon Fossum; Chan, Hoy-Yen; Merdekawati, Monika; Suryadi, Beni; Utama, Nuki Agya; Vakulchuk, Roman (December 2021). "The ASEAN climate and energy paradox". Energy and Climate Change. 2: 100019. doi:10.1016/j.egycc.2020.100019. hdl:11250/2734506.
  117. ^ "Briefing note for countries on the 2015 Human Development Report – Laos" (PDF). HDRO (Human Development Report Office) United Nations Development Programme. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 January 2016. Retrieved 26 December 2015.
  118. ^ 2015 Global Hunger Index Archived 31 August 2018 at the Wayback Machine, International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI)
  119. ^ Alston, Philip (28 March 2019). "UN expert: Lao PDR's economic strategy entrenches poverty". Vientiane: Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. Archived from the original on 11 June 2019. Retrieved 11 June 2019.
  120. ^ "The Heart of ASEAN sets pulses racing" (PDF). 14 August 2017. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 September 2020. Retrieved 2 August 2020.
  121. ^ "International visitor data". World Travel & Tourism Council. Archived from the original on 2 July 2014. Retrieved 20 January 2011.
  122. ^ "Laos – Key Facts". World Travel & Tourism Council. Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 20 January 2011.
  123. ^ European Council On Tourism And Trade Delegation Visit To Laos-World Best Tourist Destination – European Council On Tourism And Trade Archived 24 June 2021 at the Wayback Machine. Ectt.webs.com. Retrieved on 5 July 2015.
  124. ^ "The Lao People's Democratic Republic's Vision for Ecotourism". Archived from the original on 22 November 2010. Retrieved 20 January 2014.
  125. ^ "China's BRI and its High-Speed Railways to Nowhere". Archived from the original on 20 May 2021. Retrieved 21 January 2021.
  126. ^ a b c d Lao Social Indicator Survey II 2017, Survey Findings Report (PDF). Vientiane: Lao Statistics Bureau and UNICEF. 2018. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 April 2021. Retrieved 26 January 2021.
  127. ^ "Water Supply and Sanitation in Lao PDR" (PDF). worldbank.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 August 2019. Retrieved 10 December 2018.
  128. ^ a b c O'Meally, Simon (2010). Lao PDR's progress in rural sanitation Archived 17 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine. London: Overseas Development Institute
  129. ^ Laponche, Bernard; et al. (2008). "Focales n° 8. Energy Efficiency Retrofitting of Buildings – Challenges and Methods" (PDF). afd.fr. Archived from the original on 9 August 2017. Retrieved 17 February 2011.
  130. ^ a b "UN Demographic Yearbooks". Archived from the original on 27 December 2016. Retrieved 30 November 2018.
  131. ^ Diller, Anthony; Edmondson, Jerry; Luo, Yongxian (2004). The Tai-Kadai Languages Archived 10 April 2023 at the Wayback Machine. Routledge (2004), pp. 5–6. ISBN 1135791163.
  132. ^ Pittayaporn, Pittayawat (2014). Layers of Chinese Loanwords in Proto-Southwestern Tai as Evidence for the Dating of the Spread of Southwestern Tai Archived 27 June 2015 at the Wayback Machine. MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities, Special Issue No 20: 47–64.
  133. ^ ":: Overseas Compatriot Affairs Commission, R.o.c. ::". Archived from the original on 4 January 2011. Retrieved 23 September 2016.
  134. ^ "Khmu people of Laos. OMF International". Omf.org. Archived from the original on 9 November 2007. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
  135. ^ Benedict, Paul K. (1947). "Languages and Literatures of Indochina". The Far Eastern Quarterly. 6 (4): 379–389. doi:10.2307/2049433. JSTOR 2049433. S2CID 162902327.
  136. ^ "Laos". La Francophonie. Archived from the original on 18 May 2021. Retrieved 7 February 2021.
  137. ^ "Languages of Laos". Laval University. Archived from the original on 27 October 2012. Retrieved 9 July 2012.
  138. ^ a b Laos Archived 7 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine. CIA – The World Factbook. Cia.gov. Retrieved on 28 July 2018.
  139. ^ a b c d "Human Development Report 2009. Lao People's Democratic Republic". HDRstats.undp.org. Archived from the original on 7 July 2010. Retrieved 27 June 2010.
  140. ^ World Intellectual Property Organization (2024). Global Innovation Index 2024. Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship. Geneva. p. 18. doi:10.34667/tind.50062. ISBN 978-92-805-3681-2. Retrieved 22 October 2024. {{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  141. ^ "Evaluation Synthesis of Rice in Lao PDR" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 July 2007. Retrieved 27 June 2010.
  142. ^ Southiponh, Som Ock; Gerow, Aaron (1999). "Starting an Asian Cinema: Laos Past and Present". Documentary Box. 12. Yamagata International Documentary Film Festival: 27. Archived from the original on 10 April 2023. Retrieved 1 January 2019.
  143. ^ Buncomb, Andrew (10 June 2010). "Good Good Morning, Luang Prabang – and hello to Laos's film industry". The Independent. Archived from the original on 3 April 2020. Retrieved 22 May 2014.
  144. ^ Blood Road, archived from the original on 24 June 2021, retrieved 19 April 2020
  145. ^ "Q&A with director Kim Mordaunt (The Rocket)". Melbourne International Film Festival. MIFF. August 2013. Archived from the original on 5 October 2013.
  146. ^ Catt, Georgia (22 August 2012). "A tale of revenge in Laos challenges censors". BBC News. Archived from the original on 24 June 2021. Retrieved 22 May 2014.
  147. ^ "Chanthaly". Fantastic Fest. 2013. Archived from the original on 24 June 2021. Retrieved 15 May 2014.
  148. ^ Marsh, James (26 September 2013). "Fantastic Fest 2013 Review: Chanthaly is A Haunting Portrait of Modern Day Laos". ScreenAnarchy. Archived from the original on 28 October 2020. Retrieved 7 January 2021.
  149. ^ Frater, Patrick (19 September 2017). "Laos Selects 'Dearest Sister' as First Foreign-Language Oscar Submission". Variety. Archived from the original on 24 June 2021. Retrieved 26 October 2017.
  150. ^ Brzeski, Patrick (9 May 2018). "Cannes: Southeast Asia Is Ready for Its Big-Screen Close-up". The Hollywood Reporter. Valence Media. Archived from the original on 24 June 2021. Retrieved 1 January 2019.
  151. ^ "Laos'un Festivalleri". Gezimanya (in Turkish). 11 November 2016. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 6 March 2018.
  152. ^ "Laos Festivals & Events". visit-laos.com. Archived from the original on 15 June 2019. Retrieved 6 March 2018.
  153. ^ "Laos: Crony scheme in control of press and civil society". index on censorship. 12 May 2014. Archived from the original on 3 March 2021. Retrieved 11 July 2019.
  154. ^ "2012 Human Rights Reports: Laos". State.gov. Archived from the original on 24 June 2021. Retrieved 9 August 2014.
  155. ^ "Off the air in Laos". Asia Times Online. Archived from the original on 29 March 2014. Retrieved 9 August 2014.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  156. ^ "Social Discrimination in the Lao People's Democratic Republic" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 1 August 2019.
  157. ^ "Lao PDR: Family Code". Genderindex.org. Archived from the original on 9 March 2011.
  158. ^ Graceffo. "Muay Lao, the forgotten art of kickboxing". GoAbroad Network. Archived from the original on 15 April 2018.
  159. ^ Thailand – Sports and recreation. Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 24 June 2021. Retrieved 26 January 2020.
[edit]

18°N 105°E / 18°N 105°E / 18; 105

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Laos&oldid=1263118423"